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Environmental and Health Impacts of Air Pollution: A Review

Ioannis manisalidis, elisavet stavropoulou, agathangelos stavropoulos, eugenia bezirtzoglou.

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Edited by: Ethel Eljarrat, Institute of Environmental Assessment and Water Research (CSIC), Spain

Reviewed by: Fei Li, Zhongnan University of Economics and Law, China; M. Jahangir Alam, University of Houston, United States

*Correspondence: Ioannis Manisalidis [email protected]

Elisavet Stavropoulou [email protected]

This article was submitted to Environmental Health, a section of the journal Frontiers in Public Health

†These authors have contributed equally to this work

Received 2019 Oct 17; Accepted 2020 Jan 17; Collection date 2020.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

One of our era's greatest scourges is air pollution, on account not only of its impact on climate change but also its impact on public and individual health due to increasing morbidity and mortality. There are many pollutants that are major factors in disease in humans. Among them, Particulate Matter (PM), particles of variable but very small diameter, penetrate the respiratory system via inhalation, causing respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, reproductive and central nervous system dysfunctions, and cancer. Despite the fact that ozone in the stratosphere plays a protective role against ultraviolet irradiation, it is harmful when in high concentration at ground level, also affecting the respiratory and cardiovascular system. Furthermore, nitrogen oxide, sulfur dioxide, Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs), dioxins, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are all considered air pollutants that are harmful to humans. Carbon monoxide can even provoke direct poisoning when breathed in at high levels. Heavy metals such as lead, when absorbed into the human body, can lead to direct poisoning or chronic intoxication, depending on exposure. Diseases occurring from the aforementioned substances include principally respiratory problems such as Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD), asthma, bronchiolitis, and also lung cancer, cardiovascular events, central nervous system dysfunctions, and cutaneous diseases. Last but not least, climate change resulting from environmental pollution affects the geographical distribution of many infectious diseases, as do natural disasters. The only way to tackle this problem is through public awareness coupled with a multidisciplinary approach by scientific experts; national and international organizations must address the emergence of this threat and propose sustainable solutions.

Keywords: air pollution, environment, health, public health, gas emission, policy

Approach to the Problem

The interactions between humans and their physical surroundings have been extensively studied, as multiple human activities influence the environment. The environment is a coupling of the biotic (living organisms and microorganisms) and the abiotic (hydrosphere, lithosphere, and atmosphere).

Pollution is defined as the introduction into the environment of substances harmful to humans and other living organisms. Pollutants are harmful solids, liquids, or gases produced in higher than usual concentrations that reduce the quality of our environment.

Human activities have an adverse effect on the environment by polluting the water we drink, the air we breathe, and the soil in which plants grow. Although the industrial revolution was a great success in terms of technology, society, and the provision of multiple services, it also introduced the production of huge quantities of pollutants emitted into the air that are harmful to human health. Without any doubt, the global environmental pollution is considered an international public health issue with multiple facets. Social, economic, and legislative concerns and lifestyle habits are related to this major problem. Clearly, urbanization and industrialization are reaching unprecedented and upsetting proportions worldwide in our era. Anthropogenic air pollution is one of the biggest public health hazards worldwide, given that it accounts for about 9 million deaths per year ( 1 ).

Without a doubt, all of the aforementioned are closely associated with climate change, and in the event of danger, the consequences can be severe for mankind ( 2 ). Climate changes and the effects of global planetary warming seriously affect multiple ecosystems, causing problems such as food safety issues, ice and iceberg melting, animal extinction, and damage to plants ( 3 , 4 ).

Air pollution has various health effects. The health of susceptible and sensitive individuals can be impacted even on low air pollution days. Short-term exposure to air pollutants is closely related to COPD (Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease), cough, shortness of breath, wheezing, asthma, respiratory disease, and high rates of hospitalization (a measurement of morbidity).

The long-term effects associated with air pollution are chronic asthma, pulmonary insufficiency, cardiovascular diseases, and cardiovascular mortality. According to a Swedish cohort study, diabetes seems to be induced after long-term air pollution exposure ( 5 ). Moreover, air pollution seems to have various malign health effects in early human life, such as respiratory, cardiovascular, mental, and perinatal disorders ( 3 ), leading to infant mortality or chronic disease in adult age ( 6 ).

National reports have mentioned the increased risk of morbidity and mortality ( 1 ). These studies were conducted in many places around the world and show a correlation between daily ranges of particulate matter (PM) concentration and daily mortality. Climate shifts and global planetary warming ( 3 ) could aggravate the situation. Besides, increased hospitalization (an index of morbidity) has been registered among the elderly and susceptible individuals for specific reasons. Fine and ultrafine particulate matter seems to be associated with more serious illnesses ( 6 ), as it can invade the deepest parts of the airways and more easily reach the bloodstream.

Air pollution mainly affects those living in large urban areas, where road emissions contribute the most to the degradation of air quality. There is also a danger of industrial accidents, where the spread of a toxic fog can be fatal to the populations of the surrounding areas. The dispersion of pollutants is determined by many parameters, most notably atmospheric stability and wind ( 6 ).

In developing countries ( 7 ), the problem is more serious due to overpopulation and uncontrolled urbanization along with the development of industrialization. This leads to poor air quality, especially in countries with social disparities and a lack of information on sustainable management of the environment. The use of fuels such as wood fuel or solid fuel for domestic needs due to low incomes exposes people to bad-quality, polluted air at home. It is of note that three billion people around the world are using the above sources of energy for their daily heating and cooking needs ( 8 ). In developing countries, the women of the household seem to carry the highest risk for disease development due to their longer duration exposure to the indoor air pollution ( 8 , 9 ). Due to its fast industrial development and overpopulation, China is one of the Asian countries confronting serious air pollution problems ( 10 , 11 ). The lung cancer mortality observed in China is associated with fine particles ( 12 ). As stated already, long-term exposure is associated with deleterious effects on the cardiovascular system ( 3 , 5 ). However, it is interesting to note that cardiovascular diseases have mostly been observed in developed and high-income countries rather than in the developing low-income countries exposed highly to air pollution ( 13 ). Extreme air pollution is recorded in India, where the air quality reaches hazardous levels. New Delhi is one of the more polluted cities in India. Flights in and out of New Delhi International Airport are often canceled due to the reduced visibility associated with air pollution. Pollution is occurring both in urban and rural areas in India due to the fast industrialization, urbanization, and rise in use of motorcycle transportation. Nevertheless, biomass combustion associated with heating and cooking needs and practices is a major source of household air pollution in India and in Nepal ( 14 , 15 ). There is spatial heterogeneity in India, as areas with diverse climatological conditions and population and education levels generate different indoor air qualities, with higher PM 2.5 observed in North Indian states (557–601 μg/m 3 ) compared to the Southern States (183–214 μg/m 3 ) ( 16 , 17 ). The cold climate of the North Indian areas may be the main reason for this, as longer periods at home and more heating are necessary compared to in the tropical climate of Southern India. Household air pollution in India is associated with major health effects, especially in women and young children, who stay indoors for longer periods. Chronic obstructive respiratory disease (CORD) and lung cancer are mostly observed in women, while acute lower respiratory disease is seen in young children under 5 years of age ( 18 ).

Accumulation of air pollution, especially sulfur dioxide and smoke, reaching 1,500 mg/m3, resulted in an increase in the number of deaths (4,000 deaths) in December 1952 in London and in 1963 in New York City (400 deaths) ( 19 ). An association of pollution with mortality was reported on the basis of monitoring of outdoor pollution in six US metropolitan cities ( 20 ). In every case, it seems that mortality was closely related to the levels of fine, inhalable, and sulfate particles more than with the levels of total particulate pollution, aerosol acidity, sulfur dioxide, or nitrogen dioxide ( 20 ).

Furthermore, extremely high levels of pollution are reported in Mexico City and Rio de Janeiro, followed by Milan, Ankara, Melbourne, Tokyo, and Moscow ( 19 ).

Based on the magnitude of the public health impact, it is certain that different kinds of interventions should be taken into account. Success and effectiveness in controlling air pollution, specifically at the local level, have been reported. Adequate technological means are applied considering the source and the nature of the emission as well as its impact on health and the environment. The importance of point sources and non-point sources of air pollution control is reported by Schwela and Köth-Jahr ( 21 ). Without a doubt, a detailed emission inventory must record all sources in a given area. Beyond considering the above sources and their nature, topography and meteorology should also be considered, as stated previously. Assessment of the control policies and methods is often extrapolated from the local to the regional and then to the global scale. Air pollution may be dispersed and transported from one region to another area located far away. Air pollution management means the reduction to acceptable levels or possible elimination of air pollutants whose presence in the air affects our health or the environmental ecosystem. Private and governmental entities and authorities implement actions to ensure the air quality ( 22 ). Air quality standards and guidelines were adopted for the different pollutants by the WHO and EPA as a tool for the management of air quality ( 1 , 23 ). These standards have to be compared to the emissions inventory standards by causal analysis and dispersion modeling in order to reveal the problematic areas ( 24 ). Inventories are generally based on a combination of direct measurements and emissions modeling ( 24 ).

As an example, we state here the control measures at the source through the use of catalytic converters in cars. These are devices that turn the pollutants and toxic gases produced from combustion engines into less-toxic pollutants by catalysis through redox reactions ( 25 ). In Greece, the use of private cars was restricted by tracking their license plates in order to reduce traffic congestion during rush hour ( 25 ).

Concerning industrial emissions, collectors and closed systems can keep the air pollution to the minimal standards imposed by legislation ( 26 ).

Current strategies to improve air quality require an estimation of the economic value of the benefits gained from proposed programs. These proposed programs by public authorities, and directives are issued with guidelines to be respected.

In Europe, air quality limit values AQLVs (Air Quality Limit Values) are issued for setting off planning claims ( 27 ). In the USA, the NAAQS (National Ambient Air Quality Standards) establish the national air quality limit values ( 27 ). While both standards and directives are based on different mechanisms, significant success has been achieved in the reduction of overall emissions and associated health and environmental effects ( 27 ). The European Directive identifies geographical areas of risk exposure as monitoring/assessment zones to record the emission sources and levels of air pollution ( 27 ), whereas the USA establishes global geographical air quality criteria according to the severity of their air quality problem and records all sources of the pollutants and their precursors ( 27 ).

In this vein, funds have been financing, directly or indirectly, projects related to air quality along with the technical infrastructure to maintain good air quality. These plans focus on an inventory of databases from air quality environmental planning awareness campaigns. Moreover, pollution measures of air emissions may be taken for vehicles, machines, and industries in urban areas.

Technological innovation can only be successful if it is able to meet the needs of society. In this sense, technology must reflect the decision-making practices and procedures of those involved in risk assessment and evaluation and act as a facilitator in providing information and assessments to enable decision makers to make the best decisions possible. Summarizing the aforementioned in order to design an effective air quality control strategy, several aspects must be considered: environmental factors and ambient air quality conditions, engineering factors and air pollutant characteristics, and finally, economic operating costs for technological improvement and administrative and legal costs. Considering the economic factor, competitiveness through neoliberal concepts is offering a solution to environmental problems ( 22 ).

The development of environmental governance, along with technological progress, has initiated the deployment of a dialogue. Environmental politics has created objections and points of opposition between different political parties, scientists, media, and governmental and non-governmental organizations ( 22 ). Radical environmental activism actions and movements have been created ( 22 ). The rise of the new information and communication technologies (ICTs) are many times examined as to whether and in which way they have influenced means of communication and social movements such as activism ( 28 ). Since the 1990s, the term “digital activism” has been used increasingly and in many different disciplines ( 29 ). Nowadays, multiple digital technologies can be used to produce a digital activism outcome on environmental issues. More specifically, devices with online capabilities such as computers or mobile phones are being used as a way to pursue change in political and social affairs ( 30 ).

In the present paper, we focus on the sources of environmental pollution in relation to public health and propose some solutions and interventions that may be of interest to environmental legislators and decision makers.

Sources of Exposure

It is known that the majority of environmental pollutants are emitted through large-scale human activities such as the use of industrial machinery, power-producing stations, combustion engines, and cars. Because these activities are performed at such a large scale, they are by far the major contributors to air pollution, with cars estimated to be responsible for approximately 80% of today's pollution ( 31 ). Some other human activities are also influencing our environment to a lesser extent, such as field cultivation techniques, gas stations, fuel tanks heaters, and cleaning procedures ( 32 ), as well as several natural sources, such as volcanic and soil eruptions and forest fires.

The classification of air pollutants is based mainly on the sources producing pollution. Therefore, it is worth mentioning the four main sources, following the classification system: Major sources, Area sources, Mobile sources, and Natural sources.

Major sources include the emission of pollutants from power stations, refineries, and petrochemicals, the chemical and fertilizer industries, metallurgical and other industrial plants, and, finally, municipal incineration.

Indoor area sources include domestic cleaning activities, dry cleaners, printing shops, and petrol stations.

Mobile sources include automobiles, cars, railways, airways, and other types of vehicles.

Finally, natural sources include, as stated previously, physical disasters ( 33 ) such as forest fire, volcanic erosion, dust storms, and agricultural burning.

However, many classification systems have been proposed. Another type of classification is a grouping according to the recipient of the pollution, as follows:

Air pollution is determined as the presence of pollutants in the air in large quantities for long periods. Air pollutants are dispersed particles, hydrocarbons, CO, CO 2 , NO, NO 2 , SO 3 , etc.

Water pollution is organic and inorganic charge and biological charge ( 10 ) at high levels that affect the water quality ( 34 , 35 ).

Soil pollution occurs through the release of chemicals or the disposal of wastes, such as heavy metals, hydrocarbons, and pesticides.

Air pollution can influence the quality of soil and water bodies by polluting precipitation, falling into water and soil environments ( 34 , 36 ). Notably, the chemistry of the soil can be amended due to acid precipitation by affecting plants, cultures, and water quality ( 37 ). Moreover, movement of heavy metals is favored by soil acidity, and metals are so then moving into the watery environment. It is known that heavy metals such as aluminum are noxious to wildlife and fishes. Soil quality seems to be of importance, as soils with low calcium carbonate levels are at increased jeopardy from acid rain. Over and above rain, snow and particulate matter drip into watery ' bodies ( 36 , 38 ).

Lastly, pollution is classified following type of origin:

Radioactive and nuclear pollution , releasing radioactive and nuclear pollutants into water, air, and soil during nuclear explosions and accidents, from nuclear weapons, and through handling or disposal of radioactive sewage.

Radioactive materials can contaminate surface water bodies and, being noxious to the environment, plants, animals, and humans. It is known that several radioactive substances such as radium and uranium concentrate in the bones and can cause cancers ( 38 , 39 ).

Noise pollution is produced by machines, vehicles, traffic noises, and musical installations that are harmful to our hearing.

The World Health Organization introduced the term DALYs. The DALYs for a disease or health condition is defined as the sum of the Years of Life Lost (YLL) due to premature mortality in the population and the Years Lost due to Disability (YLD) for people living with the health condition or its consequences ( 39 ). In Europe, air pollution is the main cause of disability-adjusted life years lost (DALYs), followed by noise pollution. The potential relationships of noise and air pollution with health have been studied ( 40 ). The study found that DALYs related to noise were more important than those related to air pollution, as the effects of environmental noise on cardiovascular disease were independent of air pollution ( 40 ). Environmental noise should be counted as an independent public health risk ( 40 ).

Environmental pollution occurs when changes in the physical, chemical, or biological constituents of the environment (air masses, temperature, climate, etc.) are produced.

Pollutants harm our environment either by increasing levels above normal or by introducing harmful toxic substances. Primary pollutants are directly produced from the above sources, and secondary pollutants are emitted as by-products of the primary ones. Pollutants can be biodegradable or non-biodegradable and of natural origin or anthropogenic, as stated previously. Moreover, their origin can be a unique source (point-source) or dispersed sources.

Pollutants have differences in physical and chemical properties, explaining the discrepancy in their capacity for producing toxic effects. As an example, we state here that aerosol compounds ( 41 – 43 ) have a greater toxicity than gaseous compounds due to their tiny size (solid or liquid) in the atmosphere; they have a greater penetration capacity. Gaseous compounds are eliminated more easily by our respiratory system ( 41 ). These particles are able to damage lungs and can even enter the bloodstream ( 41 ), leading to the premature deaths of millions of people yearly. Moreover, the aerosol acidity ([H+]) seems to considerably enhance the production of secondary organic aerosols (SOA), but this last aspect is not supported by other scientific teams ( 38 ).

Climate and Pollution

Air pollution and climate change are closely related. Climate is the other side of the same coin that reduces the quality of our Earth ( 44 ). Pollutants such as black carbon, methane, tropospheric ozone, and aerosols affect the amount of incoming sunlight. As a result, the temperature of the Earth is increasing, resulting in the melting of ice, icebergs, and glaciers.

In this vein, climatic changes will affect the incidence and prevalence of both residual and imported infections in Europe. Climate and weather affect the duration, timing, and intensity of outbreaks strongly and change the map of infectious diseases in the globe ( 45 ). Mosquito-transmitted parasitic or viral diseases are extremely climate-sensitive, as warming firstly shortens the pathogen incubation period and secondly shifts the geographic map of the vector. Similarly, water-warming following climate changes leads to a high incidence of waterborne infections. Recently, in Europe, eradicated diseases seem to be emerging due to the migration of population, for example, cholera, poliomyelitis, tick-borne encephalitis, and malaria ( 46 ).

The spread of epidemics is associated with natural climate disasters and storms, which seem to occur more frequently nowadays ( 47 ). Malnutrition and disequilibration of the immune system are also associated with the emerging infections affecting public health ( 48 ).

The Chikungunya virus “took the airplane” from the Indian Ocean to Europe, as outbreaks of the disease were registered in Italy ( 49 ) as well as autochthonous cases in France ( 50 ).

An increase in cryptosporidiosis in the United Kingdom and in the Czech Republic seems to have occurred following flooding ( 36 , 51 ).

As stated previously, aerosols compounds are tiny in size and considerably affect the climate. They are able to dissipate sunlight (the albedo phenomenon) by dispersing a quarter of the sun's rays back to space and have cooled the global temperature over the last 30 years ( 52 ).

Air Pollutants

The World Health Organization (WHO) reports on six major air pollutants, namely particle pollution, ground-level ozone, carbon monoxide, sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, and lead. Air pollution can have a disastrous effect on all components of the environment, including groundwater, soil, and air. Additionally, it poses a serious threat to living organisms. In this vein, our interest is mainly to focus on these pollutants, as they are related to more extensive and severe problems in human health and environmental impact. Acid rain, global warming, the greenhouse effect, and climate changes have an important ecological impact on air pollution ( 53 ).

Particulate Matter (PM) and Health

Studies have shown a relationship between particulate matter (PM) and adverse health effects, focusing on either short-term (acute) or long-term (chronic) PM exposure.

Particulate matter (PM) is usually formed in the atmosphere as a result of chemical reactions between the different pollutants. The penetration of particles is closely dependent on their size ( 53 ). Particulate Matter (PM) was defined as a term for particles by the United States Environmental Protection Agency ( 54 ). Particulate matter (PM) pollution includes particles with diameters of 10 micrometers (μm) or smaller, called PM 10 , and extremely fine particles with diameters that are generally 2.5 micrometers (μm) and smaller.

Particulate matter contains tiny liquid or solid droplets that can be inhaled and cause serious health effects ( 55 ). Particles <10 μm in diameter (PM 10 ) after inhalation can invade the lungs and even reach the bloodstream. Fine particles, PM 2.5 , pose a greater risk to health ( 6 , 56 ) ( Table 1 ).

Penetrability according to particle size.

Multiple epidemiological studies have been performed on the health effects of PM. A positive relation was shown between both short-term and long-term exposures of PM 2.5 and acute nasopharyngitis ( 56 ). In addition, long-term exposure to PM for years was found to be related to cardiovascular diseases and infant mortality.

Those studies depend on PM 2.5 monitors and are restricted in terms of study area or city area due to a lack of spatially resolved daily PM 2.5 concentration data and, in this way, are not representative of the entire population. Following a recent epidemiological study by the Department of Environmental Health at Harvard School of Public Health (Boston, MA) ( 57 ), it was reported that, as PM 2.5 concentrations vary spatially, an exposure error (Berkson error) seems to be produced, and the relative magnitudes of the short- and long-term effects are not yet completely elucidated. The team developed a PM 2.5 exposure model based on remote sensing data for assessing short- and long-term human exposures ( 57 ). This model permits spatial resolution in short-term effects plus the assessment of long-term effects in the whole population.

Moreover, respiratory diseases and affection of the immune system are registered as long-term chronic effects ( 58 ). It is worth noting that people with asthma, pneumonia, diabetes, and respiratory and cardiovascular diseases are especially susceptible and vulnerable to the effects of PM. PM 2.5 , followed by PM 10 , are strongly associated with diverse respiratory system diseases ( 59 ), as their size permits them to pierce interior spaces ( 60 ). The particles produce toxic effects according to their chemical and physical properties. The components of PM 10 and PM 2.5 can be organic (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, dioxins, benzene, 1-3 butadiene) or inorganic (carbon, chlorides, nitrates, sulfates, metals) in nature ( 55 ).

Particulate Matter (PM) is divided into four main categories according to type and size ( 61 ) ( Table 2 ).

Types and sizes of particulate Matter (PM).

Gas contaminants include PM in aerial masses.

Particulate contaminants include contaminants such as smog, soot, tobacco smoke, oil smoke, fly ash, and cement dust.

Biological Contaminants are microorganisms (bacteria, viruses, fungi, mold, and bacterial spores), cat allergens, house dust and allergens, and pollen.

Types of Dust include suspended atmospheric dust, settling dust, and heavy dust.

Finally, another fact is that the half-lives of PM 10 and PM 2.5 particles in the atmosphere is extended due to their tiny dimensions; this permits their long-lasting suspension in the atmosphere and even their transfer and spread to distant destinations where people and the environment may be exposed to the same magnitude of pollution ( 53 ). They are able to change the nutrient balance in watery ecosystems, damage forests and crops, and acidify water bodies.

As stated, PM 2.5 , due to their tiny size, are causing more serious health effects. These aforementioned fine particles are the main cause of the “haze” formation in different metropolitan areas ( 12 , 13 , 61 ).

Ozone Impact in the Atmosphere

Ozone (O 3 ) is a gas formed from oxygen under high voltage electric discharge ( 62 ). It is a strong oxidant, 52% stronger than chlorine. It arises in the stratosphere, but it could also arise following chain reactions of photochemical smog in the troposphere ( 63 ).

Ozone can travel to distant areas from its initial source, moving with air masses ( 64 ). It is surprising that ozone levels over cities are low in contrast to the increased amounts occuring in urban areas, which could become harmful for cultures, forests, and vegetation ( 65 ) as it is reducing carbon assimilation ( 66 ). Ozone reduces growth and yield ( 47 , 48 ) and affects the plant microflora due to its antimicrobial capacity ( 67 , 68 ). In this regard, ozone acts upon other natural ecosystems, with microflora ( 69 , 70 ) and animal species changing their species composition ( 71 ). Ozone increases DNA damage in epidermal keratinocytes and leads to impaired cellular function ( 72 ).

Ground-level ozone (GLO) is generated through a chemical reaction between oxides of nitrogen and VOCs emitted from natural sources and/or following anthropogenic activities.

Ozone uptake usually occurs by inhalation. Ozone affects the upper layers of the skin and the tear ducts ( 73 ). A study of short-term exposure of mice to high levels of ozone showed malondialdehyde formation in the upper skin (epidermis) but also depletion in vitamins C and E. It is likely that ozone levels are not interfering with the skin barrier function and integrity to predispose to skin disease ( 74 ).

Due to the low water-solubility of ozone, inhaled ozone has the capacity to penetrate deeply into the lungs ( 75 ).

Toxic effects induced by ozone are registered in urban areas all over the world, causing biochemical, morphologic, functional, and immunological disorders ( 76 ).

The European project (APHEA2) focuses on the acute effects of ambient ozone concentrations on mortality ( 77 ). Daily ozone concentrations compared to the daily number of deaths were reported from different European cities for a 3-year period. During the warm period of the year, an observed increase in ozone concentration was associated with an increase in the daily number of deaths (0.33%), in the number of respiratory deaths (1.13%), and in the number of cardiovascular deaths (0.45%). No effect was observed during wintertime.

Carbon Monoxide (CO)

Carbon monoxide is produced by fossil fuel when combustion is incomplete. The symptoms of poisoning due to inhaling carbon monoxide include headache, dizziness, weakness, nausea, vomiting, and, finally, loss of consciousness.

The affinity of carbon monoxide to hemoglobin is much greater than that of oxygen. In this vein, serious poisoning may occur in people exposed to high levels of carbon monoxide for a long period of time. Due to the loss of oxygen as a result of the competitive binding of carbon monoxide, hypoxia, ischemia, and cardiovascular disease are observed.

Carbon monoxide affects the greenhouses gases that are tightly connected to global warming and climate. This should lead to an increase in soil and water temperatures, and extreme weather conditions or storms may occur ( 68 ).

However, in laboratory and field experiments, it has been seen to produce increased plant growth ( 78 ).

Nitrogen Oxide (NO 2 )

Nitrogen oxide is a traffic-related pollutant, as it is emitted from automobile motor engines ( 79 , 80 ). It is an irritant of the respiratory system as it penetrates deep in the lung, inducing respiratory diseases, coughing, wheezing, dyspnea, bronchospasm, and even pulmonary edema when inhaled at high levels. It seems that concentrations over 0.2 ppm produce these adverse effects in humans, while concentrations higher than 2.0 ppm affect T-lymphocytes, particularly the CD8+ cells and NK cells that produce our immune response ( 81 ).It is reported that long-term exposure to high levels of nitrogen dioxide can be responsible for chronic lung disease. Long-term exposure to NO 2 can impair the sense of smell ( 81 ).

However, systems other than respiratory ones can be involved, as symptoms such as eye, throat, and nose irritation have been registered ( 81 ).

High levels of nitrogen dioxide are deleterious to crops and vegetation, as they have been observed to reduce crop yield and plant growth efficiency. Moreover, NO 2 can reduce visibility and discolor fabrics ( 81 ).

Sulfur Dioxide (SO 2 )

Sulfur dioxide is a harmful gas that is emitted mainly from fossil fuel consumption or industrial activities. The annual standard for SO 2 is 0.03 ppm ( 82 ). It affects human, animal, and plant life. Susceptible people as those with lung disease, old people, and children, who present a higher risk of damage. The major health problems associated with sulfur dioxide emissions in industrialized areas are respiratory irritation, bronchitis, mucus production, and bronchospasm, as it is a sensory irritant and penetrates deep into the lung converted into bisulfite and interacting with sensory receptors, causing bronchoconstriction. Moreover, skin redness, damage to the eyes (lacrimation and corneal opacity) and mucous membranes, and worsening of pre-existing cardiovascular disease have been observed ( 81 ).

Environmental adverse effects, such as acidification of soil and acid rain, seem to be associated with sulfur dioxide emissions ( 83 ).

Lead is a heavy metal used in different industrial plants and emitted from some petrol motor engines, batteries, radiators, waste incinerators, and waste waters ( 84 ).

Moreover, major sources of lead pollution in the air are metals, ore, and piston-engine aircraft. Lead poisoning is a threat to public health due to its deleterious effects upon humans, animals, and the environment, especially in the developing countries.

Exposure to lead can occur through inhalation, ingestion, and dermal absorption. Trans- placental transport of lead was also reported, as lead passes through the placenta unencumbered ( 85 ). The younger the fetus is, the more harmful the toxic effects. Lead toxicity affects the fetal nervous system; edema or swelling of the brain is observed ( 86 ). Lead, when inhaled, accumulates in the blood, soft tissue, liver, lung, bones, and cardiovascular, nervous, and reproductive systems. Moreover, loss of concentration and memory, as well as muscle and joint pain, were observed in adults ( 85 , 86 ).

Children and newborns ( 87 ) are extremely susceptible even to minimal doses of lead, as it is a neurotoxicant and causes learning disabilities, impairment of memory, hyperactivity, and even mental retardation.

Elevated amounts of lead in the environment are harmful to plants and crop growth. Neurological effects are observed in vertebrates and animals in association with high lead levels ( 88 ).

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons(PAHs)

The distribution of PAHs is ubiquitous in the environment, as the atmosphere is the most important means of their dispersal. They are found in coal and in tar sediments. Moreover, they are generated through incomplete combustion of organic matter as in the cases of forest fires, incineration, and engines ( 89 ). PAH compounds, such as benzopyrene, acenaphthylene, anthracene, and fluoranthene are recognized as toxic, mutagenic, and carcinogenic substances. They are an important risk factor for lung cancer ( 89 ).

Volatile Organic Compounds(VOCs)

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs), such as toluene, benzene, ethylbenzene, and xylene ( 90 ), have been found to be associated with cancer in humans ( 91 ). The use of new products and materials has actually resulted in increased concentrations of VOCs. VOCs pollute indoor air ( 90 ) and may have adverse effects on human health ( 91 ). Short-term and long-term adverse effects on human health are observed. VOCs are responsible for indoor air smells. Short-term exposure is found to cause irritation of eyes, nose, throat, and mucosal membranes, while those of long duration exposure include toxic reactions ( 92 ). Predictable assessment of the toxic effects of complex VOC mixtures is difficult to estimate, as these pollutants can have synergic, antagonistic, or indifferent effects ( 91 , 93 ).

Dioxins originate from industrial processes but also come from natural processes, such as forest fires and volcanic eruptions. They accumulate in foods such as meat and dairy products, fish and shellfish, and especially in the fatty tissue of animals ( 94 ).

Short-period exhibition to high dioxin concentrations may result in dark spots and lesions on the skin ( 94 ). Long-term exposure to dioxins can cause developmental problems, impairment of the immune, endocrine and nervous systems, reproductive infertility, and cancer ( 94 ).

Without any doubt, fossil fuel consumption is responsible for a sizeable part of air contamination. This contamination may be anthropogenic, as in agricultural and industrial processes or transportation, while contamination from natural sources is also possible. Interestingly, it is of note that the air quality standards established through the European Air Quality Directive are somewhat looser than the WHO guidelines, which are stricter ( 95 ).

Effect of Air Pollution on Health

The most common air pollutants are ground-level ozone and Particulates Matter (PM). Air pollution is distinguished into two main types:

Outdoor pollution is the ambient air pollution.

Indoor pollution is the pollution generated by household combustion of fuels.

People exposed to high concentrations of air pollutants experience disease symptoms and states of greater and lesser seriousness. These effects are grouped into short- and long-term effects affecting health.

Susceptible populations that need to be aware of health protection measures include old people, children, and people with diabetes and predisposing heart or lung disease, especially asthma.

As extensively stated previously, according to a recent epidemiological study from Harvard School of Public Health, the relative magnitudes of the short- and long-term effects have not been completely clarified ( 57 ) due to the different epidemiological methodologies and to the exposure errors. New models are proposed for assessing short- and long-term human exposure data more successfully ( 57 ). Thus, in the present section, we report the more common short- and long-term health effects but also general concerns for both types of effects, as these effects are often dependent on environmental conditions, dose, and individual susceptibility.

Short-term effects are temporary and range from simple discomfort, such as irritation of the eyes, nose, skin, throat, wheezing, coughing and chest tightness, and breathing difficulties, to more serious states, such as asthma, pneumonia, bronchitis, and lung and heart problems. Short-term exposure to air pollution can also cause headaches, nausea, and dizziness.

These problems can be aggravated by extended long-term exposure to the pollutants, which is harmful to the neurological, reproductive, and respiratory systems and causes cancer and even, rarely, deaths.

The long-term effects are chronic, lasting for years or the whole life and can even lead to death. Furthermore, the toxicity of several air pollutants may also induce a variety of cancers in the long term ( 96 ).

As stated already, respiratory disorders are closely associated with the inhalation of air pollutants. These pollutants will invade through the airways and will accumulate at the cells. Damage to target cells should be related to the pollutant component involved and its source and dose. Health effects are also closely dependent on country, area, season, and time. An extended exposure duration to the pollutant should incline to long-term health effects in relation also to the above factors.

Particulate Matter (PMs), dust, benzene, and O 3 cause serious damage to the respiratory system ( 97 ). Moreover, there is a supplementary risk in case of existing respiratory disease such as asthma ( 98 ). Long-term effects are more frequent in people with a predisposing disease state. When the trachea is contaminated by pollutants, voice alterations may be remarked after acute exposure. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) may be induced following air pollution, increasing morbidity and mortality ( 99 ). Long-term effects from traffic, industrial air pollution, and combustion of fuels are the major factors for COPD risk ( 99 ).

Multiple cardiovascular effects have been observed after exposure to air pollutants ( 100 ). Changes occurred in blood cells after long-term exposure may affect cardiac functionality. Coronary arteriosclerosis was reported following long-term exposure to traffic emissions ( 101 ), while short-term exposure is related to hypertension, stroke, myocardial infracts, and heart insufficiency. Ventricle hypertrophy is reported to occur in humans after long-time exposure to nitrogen oxide (NO 2 ) ( 102 , 103 ).

Neurological effects have been observed in adults and children after extended-term exposure to air pollutants.

Psychological complications, autism, retinopathy, fetal growth, and low birth weight seem to be related to long-term air pollution ( 83 ). The etiologic agent of the neurodegenerative diseases (Alzheimer's and Parkinson's) is not yet known, although it is believed that extended exposure to air pollution seems to be a factor. Specifically, pesticides and metals are cited as etiological factors, together with diet. The mechanisms in the development of neurodegenerative disease include oxidative stress, protein aggregation, inflammation, and mitochondrial impairment in neurons ( 104 ) ( Figure 1 ).

Impact of air pollutants on the brain.

Brain inflammation was observed in dogs living in a highly polluted area in Mexico for a long period ( 105 ). In human adults, markers of systemic inflammation (IL-6 and fibrinogen) were found to be increased as an immediate response to PNC on the IL-6 level, possibly leading to the production of acute-phase proteins ( 106 ). The progression of atherosclerosis and oxidative stress seem to be the mechanisms involved in the neurological disturbances caused by long-term air pollution. Inflammation comes secondary to the oxidative stress and seems to be involved in the impairment of developmental maturation, affecting multiple organs ( 105 , 107 ). Similarly, other factors seem to be involved in the developmental maturation, which define the vulnerability to long-term air pollution. These include birthweight, maternal smoking, genetic background and socioeconomic environment, as well as education level.

However, diet, starting from breast-feeding, is another determinant factor. Diet is the main source of antioxidants, which play a key role in our protection against air pollutants ( 108 ). Antioxidants are free radical scavengers and limit the interaction of free radicals in the brain ( 108 ). Similarly, genetic background may result in a differential susceptibility toward the oxidative stress pathway ( 60 ). For example, antioxidant supplementation with vitamins C and E appears to modulate the effect of ozone in asthmatic children homozygous for the GSTM1 null allele ( 61 ). Inflammatory cytokines released in the periphery (e.g., respiratory epithelia) upregulate the innate immune Toll-like receptor 2. Such activation and the subsequent events leading to neurodegeneration have recently been observed in lung lavage in mice exposed to ambient Los Angeles (CA, USA) particulate matter ( 61 ). In children, neurodevelopmental morbidities were observed after lead exposure. These children developed aggressive and delinquent behavior, reduced intelligence, learning difficulties, and hyperactivity ( 109 ). No level of lead exposure seems to be “safe,” and the scientific community has asked the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) to reduce the current screening guideline of 10 μg/dl ( 109 ).

It is important to state that impact on the immune system, causing dysfunction and neuroinflammation ( 104 ), is related to poor air quality. Yet, increases in serum levels of immunoglobulins (IgA, IgM) and the complement component C3 are observed ( 106 ). Another issue is that antigen presentation is affected by air pollutants, as there is an upregulation of costimulatory molecules such as CD80 and CD86 on macrophages ( 110 ).

As is known, skin is our shield against ultraviolet radiation (UVR) and other pollutants, as it is the most exterior layer of our body. Traffic-related pollutants, such as PAHs, VOCs, oxides, and PM, may cause pigmented spots on our skin ( 111 ). On the one hand, as already stated, when pollutants penetrate through the skin or are inhaled, damage to the organs is observed, as some of these pollutants are mutagenic and carcinogenic, and, specifically, they affect the liver and lung. On the other hand, air pollutants (and those in the troposphere) reduce the adverse effects of ultraviolet radiation UVR in polluted urban areas ( 111 ). Air pollutants absorbed by the human skin may contribute to skin aging, psoriasis, acne, urticaria, eczema, and atopic dermatitis ( 111 ), usually caused by exposure to oxides and photochemical smoke ( 111 ). Exposure to PM and cigarette smoking act as skin-aging agents, causing spots, dyschromia, and wrinkles. Lastly, pollutants have been associated with skin cancer ( 111 ).

Higher morbidity is reported to fetuses and children when exposed to the above dangers. Impairment in fetal growth, low birth weight, and autism have been reported ( 112 ).

Another exterior organ that may be affected is the eye. Contamination usually comes from suspended pollutants and may result in asymptomatic eye outcomes, irritation ( 112 ), retinopathy, or dry eye syndrome ( 113 , 114 ).

Environmental Impact of Air Pollution

Air pollution is harming not only human health but also the environment ( 115 ) in which we live. The most important environmental effects are as follows.

Acid rain is wet (rain, fog, snow) or dry (particulates and gas) precipitation containing toxic amounts of nitric and sulfuric acids. They are able to acidify the water and soil environments, damage trees and plantations, and even damage buildings and outdoor sculptures, constructions, and statues.

Haze is produced when fine particles are dispersed in the air and reduce the transparency of the atmosphere. It is caused by gas emissions in the air coming from industrial facilities, power plants, automobiles, and trucks.

Ozone , as discussed previously, occurs both at ground level and in the upper level (stratosphere) of the Earth's atmosphere. Stratospheric ozone is protecting us from the Sun's harmful ultraviolet (UV) rays. In contrast, ground-level ozone is harmful to human health and is a pollutant. Unfortunately, stratospheric ozone is gradually damaged by ozone-depleting substances (i.e., chemicals, pesticides, and aerosols). If this protecting stratospheric ozone layer is thinned, then UV radiation can reach our Earth, with harmful effects for human life (skin cancer) ( 116 ) and crops ( 117 ). In plants, ozone penetrates through the stomata, inducing them to close, which blocks CO 2 transfer and induces a reduction in photosynthesis ( 118 ).

Global climate change is an important issue that concerns mankind. As is known, the “greenhouse effect” keeps the Earth's temperature stable. Unhappily, anthropogenic activities have destroyed this protecting temperature effect by producing large amounts of greenhouse gases, and global warming is mounting, with harmful effects on human health, animals, forests, wildlife, agriculture, and the water environment. A report states that global warming is adding to the health risks of poor people ( 119 ).

People living in poorly constructed buildings in warm-climate countries are at high risk for heat-related health problems as temperatures mount ( 119 ).

Wildlife is burdened by toxic pollutants coming from the air, soil, or the water ecosystem and, in this way, animals can develop health problems when exposed to high levels of pollutants. Reproductive failure and birth effects have been reported.

Eutrophication is occurring when elevated concentrations of nutrients (especially nitrogen) stimulate the blooming of aquatic algae, which can cause a disequilibration in the diversity of fish and their deaths.

Without a doubt, there is a critical concentration of pollution that an ecosystem can tolerate without being destroyed, which is associated with the ecosystem's capacity to neutralize acidity. The Canada Acid Rain Program established this load at 20 kg/ha/yr ( 120 ).

Hence, air pollution has deleterious effects on both soil and water ( 121 ). Concerning PM as an air pollutant, its impact on crop yield and food productivity has been reported. Its impact on watery bodies is associated with the survival of living organisms and fishes and their productivity potential ( 121 ).

An impairment in photosynthetic rhythm and metabolism is observed in plants exposed to the effects of ozone ( 121 ).

Sulfur and nitrogen oxides are involved in the formation of acid rain and are harmful to plants and marine organisms.

Last but not least, as mentioned above, the toxicity associated with lead and other metals is the main threat to our ecosystems (air, water, and soil) and living creatures ( 121 ).

In 2018, during the first WHO Global Conference on Air Pollution and Health, the WHO's General Director, Dr. Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus, called air pollution a “silent public health emergency” and “the new tobacco” ( 122 ).

Undoubtedly, children are particularly vulnerable to air pollution, especially during their development. Air pollution has adverse effects on our lives in many different respects.

Diseases associated with air pollution have not only an important economic impact but also a societal impact due to absences from productive work and school.

Despite the difficulty of eradicating the problem of anthropogenic environmental pollution, a successful solution could be envisaged as a tight collaboration of authorities, bodies, and doctors to regularize the situation. Governments should spread sufficient information and educate people and should involve professionals in these issues so as to control the emergence of the problem successfully.

Technologies to reduce air pollution at the source must be established and should be used in all industries and power plants. The Kyoto Protocol of 1997 set as a major target the reduction of GHG emissions to below 5% by 2012 ( 123 ). This was followed by the Copenhagen summit, 2009 ( 124 ), and then the Durban summit of 2011 ( 125 ), where it was decided to keep to the same line of action. The Kyoto protocol and the subsequent ones were ratified by many countries. Among the pioneers who adopted this important protocol for the world's environmental and climate “health” was China ( 3 ). As is known, China is a fast-developing economy and its GDP (Gross Domestic Product) is expected to be very high by 2050, which is defined as the year of dissolution of the protocol for the decrease in gas emissions.

A more recent international agreement of crucial importance for climate change is the Paris Agreement of 2015, issued by the UNFCCC (United Nations Climate Change Committee). This latest agreement was ratified by a plethora of UN (United Nations) countries as well as the countries of the European Union ( 126 ). In this vein, parties should promote actions and measures to enhance numerous aspects around the subject. Boosting education, training, public awareness, and public participation are some of the relevant actions for maximizing the opportunities to achieve the targets and goals on the crucial matter of climate change and environmental pollution ( 126 ). Without any doubt, technological improvements makes our world easier and it seems difficult to reduce the harmful impact caused by gas emissions, we could limit its use by seeking reliable approaches.

Synopsizing, a global prevention policy should be designed in order to combat anthropogenic air pollution as a complement to the correct handling of the adverse health effects associated with air pollution. Sustainable development practices should be applied, together with information coming from research in order to handle the problem effectively.

At this point, international cooperation in terms of research, development, administration policy, monitoring, and politics is vital for effective pollution control. Legislation concerning air pollution must be aligned and updated, and policy makers should propose the design of a powerful tool of environmental and health protection. As a result, the main proposal of this essay is that we should focus on fostering local structures to promote experience and practice and extrapolate these to the international level through developing effective policies for sustainable management of ecosystems.

Author Contributions

All authors listed have made a substantial, direct and intellectual contribution to the work, and approved it for publication.

Conflict of Interest

IM is employed by the company Delphis S.A. The remaining authors declare that the present review paper was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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Addressing global environmental pollution using environmental control techniques: a focus on environmental policy and preventive environmental management

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• Published: 06 February 2024
• Volume 2 , article number  8 , ( 2024 )

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• Jonathan Awewomom 1 ,
• Felicia Dzeble 2 ,
• Yaw Doudu Takyi 3 ,
• Winfred Bediakoh Ashie 4 ,
• Emil Nana Yaw Osei Ettey 4 ,
• Patricia Eyram Afua 4 , 5 ,
• Lyndon N. A. Sackey 2 ,
• Francis Opoku 4 &
• Osei Akoto 4  

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A Correction to this article was published on 18 March 2024

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Global environmental pollution presents formidable obstacles to the long-term viability of the planet. This study synthesized current relevant literature with statistical snapshots from pollution statistics and reports and presented feasible recommendations to address the ramifications of global environmental pollution. A central focus is laid on the importance of preventive environmental management (PEM) and the strategic enforcement of environmental policies (EP), with a detailed exploration of history evolution and current application challenges. Specifically, the study centers on the significance of environmental policy and preventive environmental management in combatting global pollution. The examination encompasses an overview of environmental pollution and its implications for the environment and human health. It explores the role of environmental policy in mitigating environmental pollution, scrutinizes the principles underlying preventive environmental management, and evaluates the effectiveness of environmental management systems in curbing pollution. Furthermore, the study identifies and analyzes the challenges of implementing environmental control techniques, offering recommendations to overcome these obstacles. The outcomes of this research contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of the potential of environmental control methods in tackling global environmental pollution. The study underscores the crucial nature of robust environmental policies and proactive approaches to prevent pollution and foster sustainable development. Additionally, it offers insights into the necessity for collaboration and cooperation among stakeholders at various levels to attain effective pollution control and environmental management.

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1 Introduction

The environment is essential for sustaining life on earth but the rising global contamination and pollution of the environment has become a significant concern in recent years [ 1 , 2 ]. Pollution in the environment can occur in different forms including air pollution, water pollution, soil pollution, and noise pollution [ 3 ]. Industries can reduce pollution by using cleaner production technologies and practices, governments can also enforce regulations and penalties for industries that violate pollution standards [ 4 ]. Transportation can be improved by promoting the use of public transport, electric vehicles, and bicycles. Governments can also enforce regulations on vehicle emissions. implementation of proper waste disposal systems to help waste management practices such as recycling and composting [ 5 ].

Recognizing that preventing certain pollutions before they occur is not only easier but also essential, a preventive environmental management (PEM) approach becomes paramount. Environmental policy (EP) has a very rich history which has been explored and reported by several studies such as [ 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 ] and [ 10 ], however, EP has not been adequately utilized in addressing pollution globally as several nations over the world have paid little or no attention to environmental policy with several constraints on its implementation. In 2022, [ 11 ] reconsidered the strategies employed in the allocation of policies using the computable general equilibrium (CGE) model to conduct a review of instruments of environmental policy, this facilitated the expansion of policies and better criteria for selecting and formulating instruments of EP using practical approaches, Cohen [ 12 ] studied the enforcement, monitoring, and compliance to environmental policies. Wu and Zhang [ 13 ] studied the strict implementation of EP which led to the remarkable green growth in China and revealed a substantial increase in requirements and innovations of environmental technology as a result of strict implementation of environmental policies.

Environmental contamination and pollution occur when harmful substances and contaminants are released into the air, soil, and water causing significant damage to the environment and human health [ 14 ]. A study by Li, Jin [ 15 ] showed that air pollution has become a global problem and must be addressed, severe pollution of the ozone has also been reported in China, as a result, China is now considered a hot spot for ozone pollution globally [ 16 ]. Environmental contamination and pollution can occur naturally such as wildfires and volcanic eruptions but are largely caused by anthropogenic activities including industrialization, transportation, and agriculture [ 1 ]. This pollution can have severe consequences on human health causing a range of health issues including respiratory problems, cancer, and other chronic diseases [ 17 ]. chemical contaminants have become major pollutants contributing to a rise in toxicity of the aquatic ecosystem, soil and air [ 18 ]. Environmental pollution and contamination can have significant economic consequences including the cost of cleaning up contaminated sites and mitigating the adverse effects on human health [ 19 ].

Addressing global pollution involves transforming industrial processes into environmentally friendly and less polluting systems. This can be achieved by identifying potential sources of pollution and implementing preventive measures to minimize environmental impact. One key strategy is adopting cleaner production methods, reducing the use of hazardous chemicals, and minimizing waste generation in industries. Adopting these pollution prevention techniques focuses on eliminating and reducing pollution in industries [ 20 ]. Establishing environmental management systems, such as ISO 14001, fosters a culture of continuous improvement and ensures industrial compliance with environmental standards [ 21 ]. These measures collectively contribute to creating more sustainable and environmentally responsible industrial processes, fostering a healthier planet for future generations.

Various creative methods are used to track and assess the impact of environmental regulations on pollution management in different nations and regions. Satellite imaging and remote sensing technologies to monitor pollution levels from space. This approach provides a broader perspective, enabling tracking of large-scale environmental changes and assessing the effectiveness of regulatory measures. Foster collaborative international research networks that bring together scientists, policymakers, and experts from various nations [ 22 ]. Sharing methodologies, data, and best practices enhances the collective understanding of the global impact of environmental regulations on pollution [ 23 ]. Establish global environmental indices that integrate pollution data, regulatory frameworks, and environmental performance indicators. These indices can offer a comparative assessment of nations and regions, encouraging healthy competition and driving continuous improvement in pollution management efforts. Also, collaborative approaches and multilateral environmental agreements can be established, allowing nations to work together towards common goals while still maintaining their autonomy, by allowing nations to set their own environmental goals based on their unique circumstances [ 24 ]. This can facilitate the sharing of resources, knowledge, and best practices for pollution management. Additionally, coordinating global environmental policies through platforms like the United Nations can help ensure that the interests and concerns of all nations are taken into account [ 25 ]. Institutional quality has a great impact on global environmental pollution control, strengthening institutions can contribute to mitigating environmental effects, with a focus on formulating recommendations applicable [ 26 ].

In a world grappling with myriad environmental challenges, there exists a pressing need to address critical gaps on a global scale to reduce and control environmental pollution effectively. As the consequences of climate change intensify, the importance of environmental policies and proactive preventive management strategies cannot be overstated [ 27 ]. Revealed the possible detrimental effects of natural resource rent and urbanization on environmental indicators, these factors have a collective impact on carbon emissions, ecological footprint, and carbon footprint. A similar study [ 28 ] showed that population density influences CO2 emissions [ 29 ]. Confirmed a possible adverse effect of economic growth and biocapacity on the ecological footprint of nations. One of the major barriers to addressing global pollution is the issue of respect for national sovereignty. A study [ 30 ] revealed the difficulty of balancing respecting national autonomy and achieving effective global environmental governance. These gaps highlight the need for a review to provide information on the current state of environmental pollution and analysis to improve the understanding and implementation of environmental pollution management strategies on a global scale. Figure  1 illustrates a planet divided by its actions and outcomes. One half is engulfed by the dark smog of industrialization, depicting polluted landscapes, factories belching smoke, and waste-filled waters. The contrasting half radiates with the vibrancy of renewable energy sources, green cities, and clear skies. Central to the image are environmental policies and management tools, symbolizing the transformative journey from pollution to sustainability. This stark dichotomy serves as a visual representation of the crossroads at which global environmental pollution stands and the positive impact that environmental control techniques and policies can have on the world's future and hence the need for this review. Global Environmental pollution cannot be eradicated without understanding the forces and laws that drive pollution in the environment. This review explored and evaluated the existing techniques in EP, PEM and EMS, the gaps, and the need for a holistic approach to addressing global pollution.

From pollution to preservation: envisioning a cleaner future

2 Preventive environmental management

The concept of PEM uses strategies such as waste reduction, pollution prevention, and resource conservation to identify and prevent potential risks to the environment [ 31 ]. PEM is a cost reduction tool which assists organizations in reducing risks to liability through compliance [ 32 ], it is implemented through strategies such as environmental management, life cycle assessment (LCA), environmental performance indicators, green procurement, environmental risk assessment and environmental monitoring systems [ 33 ]. The initiative of zero manufacturing waste to landfills by Procter and Gamble’s aimed at eradicating waste from manufacturing processes and the ecomagination program by General Electric which focused on the development of products and services which are environmentally friendly are all typical practices of PEM [ 34 ]. A study by Kazancoglu [ 35 ] assessed the effectiveness of PEM strategies and found that for manufacturing companies, there was a reduction in the use of water, energy and waste generation. Another study [ 36 ] on prevention of pollution showed a reduction in the use of toxic chemical by chemical manufacturing companies through the use of PEM.

2.1 Environmental management

Environmental management (EM) refers to the practice of managing natural resources, ecosystems, and pollution to ensure their sustainable use and protection, this is achieved through planning, implementing, and monitoring strategies that reduce the negative impact of human activities on the environment [ 37 ]. Despite the challenges, EM offers significant benefits such as economic benefits through reduction in costs associated with pollution control [ 38 ], improved resource efficiency, and increased market opportunities for sustainable products, social benefits through improved health and quality of life, and enhanced community resilience, regulatory compliance by ensuring organizations comply with environmental regulations and avoid fines and other legal penalties [ 39 ]. Some of the strategies employed in EM include; Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA, sustainable resource management, pollution prevention through the implementation of measures to prevent pollution from occurring, including the use of cleaner production technologies and waste minimization practices [ 40 ], and environmental management systems, a framework for managing environmental responsibilities and promoting continuous improvement in environmental performance [ 41 ].

2.1.1 Principles of environmental management

The major principles in environmental management include sustainability, prevention, precaution and participation. Environmental management ensures that natural resources are used in a way that meets present needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs [ 42 ], also it emphasizes the need to prevent pollution and environmental damage before it occurs, rather than relying on remediation, it advocates for the precautionary approach, which means taking action to prevent potential environmental harm, even in the absence of scientific certainty and further involves the participation of all stakeholders, including government agencies, industries, communities, and individuals [ 43 ]. Some of the challenges in the implementation of environmental management include a lack of data, limited resources, and conflicting priorities [ 44 ].

2.2 Environmental management systems (EMS)

Environmental Management System (EMS) is a structured and systematic approach to managing environmental issues and impacts within an organization to achieve sustainable development [ 45 ]. EMS focuses on identifying and managing the environmental aspects of an organization's activities, products, and services. It helps organizations to establish and maintain a sustainable approach to managing their environmental impact, comply with environmental regulations, and reduce costs associated with environmental risks [ 46 ]. Regulatory bodies conduct regular inspections and audits to ensure that organizations are complying with environmental regulations and EMS standards. The enforcement of EMS standards by regulatory bodies has a significant impact on the environment by ensuring that organizations are managing their environmental impact effectively [ 47 ]. The implementation of EMS can result in cost savings through reduced energy consumption, waste reduction, and improved operational efficiency. EMS also helps organizations to demonstrate their commitment to environmental sustainability, which can enhance their reputation and provide a competitive advantage [ 48 ]. The implementation of EMS involves several steps, including policy development, planning, implementation, monitoring, and evaluation [ 49 ].

2.3 Life cycle assessment (LCA)

Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a systematic approach employed to assess the environmental consequences of a product, process, or service from its initial extraction of raw materials to its ultimate disposal. LCA takes into account the environmental implications at every stage of a product’s life, encompassing raw material extraction, manufacturing, distribution, utilization, and end-of-life management [ 50 ]. It offers a comprehensive perspective on the environmental impact of products and processes, empowering companies and policymakers to make sustainable decisions and minimize their ecological burden. Insights should therefore be derived from LCA for eco-labeling, environmental product declarations, and shaping environmental policies and regulations [ 51 ]. The typical steps involved in conducting an LCA include goal definition and scope, life cycle inventory, life cycle impact assessment, interpretation and improvement, and decision-making [ 52 , 53 ].

2.4 Environmental risk assessment

Environmental Risk Assessment (ERA) is a structured process utilized to assess the potential negative impacts of human activities on the environment. It identifies, analyzes, and evaluates risks associated with specific actions or substances to facilitate informed decision-making and minimize environmental damage [ 54 ]. ERA focuses on gauging the probability and severity of adverse effects on various ecosystems, encompassing terrestrial, aquatic, and atmospheric systems [ 55 ]. ERA finds application in various domains, including industrial activities, infrastructure development, chemical substances, genetically modified organisms, and pollution incidents. It plays a vital role in supporting sustainable development, guiding environmental management practices, and safeguarding ecosystems and human well-being. The fundamental steps involved in conducting ERA include hazard identification, exposure assessment, effects assessment, and risk management [ 54 , 55 , 56 ].

2.5 Environmental performance indicators

Environmental performance indicators (EPIs) are measurements used to evaluate and gauge the environmental performance of organizations, processes, products, or services [ 57 ]. They provide both quantitative and qualitative data, enabling the assessment, monitoring, and reporting of environmental impacts, resource usage, and sustainability endeavors. EPIs serve as valuable tools for tracking progress, establishing goals, identifying areas for enhancement, and communicating environmental performance to stakeholders. A wide array of environmental performance indicators can be utilized, depending on the specific context and objectives [ 58 ]. Some commonly employed EPIs encompass energy consumption, greenhouse gas emission, water usage, waste generation, recycling rate, biodiversity impact, environmental compliance, eco-efficiency, environmental expenditure, and certifications [ 57 ].

2.6 Green procurement

Green procurement, also known as sustainable procurement or environmentally responsible procurement, involves integrating environmental factors into the purchasing decisions of organizations. It aims to minimize the environmental impact associated with acquiring goods and services by considering criteria such as energy efficiency, resource conservation, waste reduction, pollution prevention, and the use of eco-friendly materials or technologies [ 59 ]. Implementing green procurement requires collaboration among stakeholders, including procurement departments, sustainability teams, suppliers, and top management [ 60 ]. It involves integrating environmental considerations into procurement policies, processes, and supplier selection criteria, as well as ongoing monitoring and evaluation of environmental performance. Green procurement includes key principles and strategies: environmental criteria integration, supplier evaluation, life cycle assessment, product certification and labels, and collaboration with suppliers [ 58 , 61 ].

2.7 Environmental policy (EP)

Environmental policy refers to the actions taken by governments and organizations to address environmental challenges such as the Clean Air Act in the United States. These challenges are wide-ranging and include issues such as climate change, air pollution, and water pollution [ 62 ]. EP dates back to the early conservation movement of the nineteenth century. The first significant environmental policy was the creation of national parks in the United States in the late nineteenth century [ 63 ]. EP became more widespread in the twentieth century with the creation of the US Environmental Protection Agency in 1970 and the adoption of the Clean Air Act and Clean Water Act [ 9 ]. International organizations such as the United Nations have played a significant role in shaping environmental policies [ 64 ]. The UN Conference on the Human Environment, held in Stockholm in 1972, was a landmark event in the development of environmental policy at the international level [ 65 ]. The conference led to the creation of the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) which played a leading role in shaping global environmental policy [ 66 ].

2.8 Current global environmental policies

2.8.1 international environmental policies.

Efforts to protect the planet and tackle environmental problems rely heavily on international environmental policies. These policies play an essential role in preventing global pollution, propelling sustainable development, and conserving natural resources. The policies tackle an array of environmental issues, including biodiversity loss, climate change, and pollution. Through international conventions and agreements, countries collaborate to set goals, develop strategies for dealing with environmental threats, and establish regulations.

2.8.2 United nations framework convention on climate change

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), adopted in 1992 and ratified by nearly all countries, exemplifies a significant international environmental policy to fight climate change, provides a solid foundation for global cooperation to stabilize greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and prevent harmful human interference with the fragile climate system that supports life. By adhering to the principles of the UNFCCC, nations join forces to create a sustainable and resilient future—minimizing the impact of climate change, safeguarding societies, and preserving ecosystems for future generations [ 67 ].

2.8.3 Kyoto protocol

The Kyoto Protocol, an offshoot of the UNFCCC, is a landmark in international efforts to counter the impending danger of climate change. Adopted in 1997 and fully operational in 2005, the Protocol advocates for mandatory reduction in emissions for developed countries, known as Annex I parties, from 2008 to 2012. The ultimate aim is to decrease greenhouse gas emissions substantially below 1990 levels, paving the way for a responsible and sustainable future. The Protocol incorporates innovative market-based emission trading systems that not only propel reduction efforts but incentivize greener practices. Though this protocol has gained success in stimulating global climate action awareness and laid the groundwork for future international frameworks, it is faced with several implementation challenges [ 68 ].

2.8.4 Paris agreement

Adopted in 2015 under the UNFCCC, the Paris Agreement represents a significant milestone in the fight against climate change. It aims to strengthen the global response and limit the rise in global temperatures to below 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels, ideally keeping it to 1.5 degrees Celsius. The Agreement necessitates commitments from all nations to heighten efforts in reducing greenhouse gas emissions, adapting to climate change impact, and providing support to developing countries. This agreement has been widely accepted however, it faces difficulties in absolute compliance by some nations as it requires regular reviews of a country's progress towards meeting their climate-related goals [ 69 ].

2.9 National environmental policies

Countries adopt national environmental policies to tackle and alleviate pollution while mitigating its adverse impacts on the environment. These policies are tailored to each nation based on their unique environmental trials and priorities. This gamut of strategies could include regulations, laws, and programs aimed at reducing pollution, conserving our natural resources, and advocating for sustainable development. The pivotal role played by these policies ensures the safeguarding of ecosystems, biodiversity, and community welfare.

2.9.1 United States environmental protection agency (USEPA)

The USEPA, commonly referred to as the EPA supports and executes numerous environmental policies across America. Its fundamental goal focuses on tackling and mitigating issues of pollution, securing human health, and preserving the environment. The EPA relentlessly formulates and enforces a multitude of regulations and standards spanning not only air and water quality, hazardous waste disposal techniques, and chemical uses, but beyond. The plethora of efforts from the EPA vitally contributes to steering the U.S. toward a future that is cleaner, healthier, and more sustainable [ 70 ].

2.9.2 European Union environmental policy

One of the EU’s environmental policy cornerstones is the shift toward a circular economy, bidding farewell to the traditional “take-make-dispose” linear economic model and welcoming a more sustainable one. The idea centralizes on PEM by optimizing product and material value, decreasing waste, and conserving resources. Further, the EU is resolute about curbing greenhouse gas emissions and battling climate change. By imposing strict regulations and goals, the EU encourages cleaner, more efficient energy systems, cuts down dependency on fossil fuels, and supports renewable energy. This commitment extends to research funding and financial incentives to promote sustainable technology adoption. The European Union (EU) holds a strong and inclusive environmental policy framework that is directed towards reducing pollution and championing sustainable growth. It includes a myriad of strategies, legislations, and regulations addressing various environmental dilemmas and challenges. These strategies target fundamental sectors like air and water quality, waste management, biodiversity protection, and climate change alleviation [ 71 ].

2.9.3 China’s environmental protection policies

As a leading global economy, China acknowledges the absolute importance of effectively addressing the complex environmental challenges of recent times. China's assertive and inclusive environmental protection policies are framed to address urgent issues including air and water pollution control, energy preservation, and ecological restoration. The country has initiated a plethora of measures to drastically reduce industry and vehicle emissions, promote clean and renewable energy, and significantly improve waste management practices. By adhering to strict environmental impact assessments, encouraging public participation, and investing heavily in research, innovative technologies, and crucial infrastructure, China is firmly advancing towards a greener and more sustainable tomorrow [ 72 ].

2.10 Regional environmental policies

Regional environmental strategies are instrumental in mitigating pollution within distinct geographical zones by synthesizing efforts and creating harmonized frameworks for environmental stewardship among partnering nations. This collaboration facilitates a more effective counteraction to environmental issues common within the region. These strategies often give life to regional accords, statutes, and norms aimed at pollution abatement, garbage routing, conservation of resources, and the safeguarding of biodiversity. These policies function as a platform for nations to pool their resources, endorsing collective liability for environmental protection and sustainable development within their region.

2.10.1 African Union environmental policy

The African Union (AU) Environmental Policy is an overarching blueprint designed to address numerous urgent environmental matters across the expansive African continent. With an unwavering commitment to sustainable growth, preserving priceless natural wealth, and successful reduction of pollution, this policy stands as a promising beacon for Africa’s environmental potential. It underscores the acute need for robust governance, human capital development, and regional collaboration to directly confront these environmental challenges. To ensure the desired effect of the AU Environmental Policy, the African Union engages intimately with its member states, enforces this vital blueprint, and bolsters it with a diverse array of initiatives [ 73 ].

2.10.2 Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) environmental policy

The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) Environmental Policy was crafted to foster sustainable development and protect the environment within its member states. It aspires to make a substantial positive impact on environmental issues. The policy underlines the critical importance of tackling pollution with a complete and cooperative approach. By focusing intensely on key areas like air and water pollution regulation, effective waste management, biodiversity conservation, and climate change adaptation, ASEAN actively seeks to trigger decisive change. ASEAN states, through their united efforts, implement the policy by sharing best practices, conducting collaborative research, and creating regional frameworks and guiding policies [ 74 ].

2.11 Corporate environmental policies

By establishing guidelines and objectives, company environmental strategies exercise a pivotal role in pollution prevention by encouraging ventures to lessen their ecological footprint through PEM. These directives encapsulate pledges to sustainable practices, conservation of resources, and reduction in emissions. This details tactics for enhancing energy productivity, championing renewable energy resources, and decreasing waste production. Companies such as Toyota, Apple, and Walmart have developed strategies to create a purer environment and subdue the detrimental consequences of their business operations.

Toyota’s Environmental Challenge 2050 proposes an exhaustive blueprint to tackle environmental dilemmas linked with automobiles and manufacturing. The policy sets forth six fundamental tasks: curbing CO 2 emissions, lessening water consumption, advocating recycling, directing attention to alternative fuel automobiles, safeguarding biodiversity, and encouraging a sustainable society. Toyota is dedicated to lowering vehicle emissions, directing capital towards electric and hydrogen fuel cell vehicle research and development, and envisioning a future devoid of CO 2 emissions [ 75 ]. Apple’s environmental responsibility policy accentuates its firm dedication to curtailing its carbon footprint and conserving indispensable resources for the planet’s welfare. This comprehensive policy is ardently centered around pioneering product design, meaningful energy efficiency, and ethical sourcing of materials. Leading the way, Apple intertwines renewable energy sources and state-of-the-art, energy-efficient technologies into their daily operations and superior product range. In their quest to reduce waste, Apple supports recycling programs, inviting the international community to pull together in the pursuit of a sustainable tomorrow. By guaranteeing responsible material sourcing, Apple looks to abolish hazardous substances and considerably diminish their environmental impact throughout its complicated supply chain [ 76 ]. Walmart's approach to sustainability, embodied in its policy, displays a resolute commitment to being good stewards of the environment, adopting an all-encompassing perspective on sustainability. Their unwavering focus on zero waste, capitalizing on renewable energy resources, and transforming the marketplace with a multitude of eco-friendly products illustrate their firm dedication. In addition to the policy which features grand and audacious goals, Walmart holds ambitions to curtail greenhouse gas emissions, amplify energy efficiency, and integrate renewable energy into its operational processes [ 77 ].

2.12 Gaps in current environmental policies

While a myriad of environmental policies exists, substantial loopholes persist, hindering effective pollution prevention and impeding sustainable environmental progression. Rooted in deficient enforcement strategies, inadequate funding for policy deployment, poor surveillance and reporting structures, and a lack of global consolidation and unison, these gaps demand urgent attention. The absence of robust enforcement mechanisms stands out as a prominent deficiency, where outlined practices often fail to materialize due to lax execution and minimal penalties for contravention. This not only allows corporations and individuals to disregard environmental statutes but also leads to elevated pollution levels. Augmenting enforcement strategies is crucial to ensuring compliance and the efficacy of environmental policies. Furthermore, insufficient funding poses a considerable obstacle, limiting the capacity to enforce rules, construct eco-friendly infrastructure, and invest in research for pollution reduction. Overcoming this gap requires increased financial backing and resource allocation. Inadequate monitoring and reporting systems add to the challenge, making it formidable to pinpoint pollution sources and implement targeted strategies. Enriching monitoring technologies, installing robust reporting structures, and promoting transparency are indispensable steps to bolster policy effectiveness. Additionally, limited international cooperation and coordination, stemming from disparities in priorities and regulations, pose obstacles to combating pollution globally. To bridge this gap, reinforcing international consolidation mechanisms, setting shared objectives, and promoting discourse among nations are essential for a cohesive and effective approach to pollution prevention. By strengthening international agreements, enhancing national environmental regulations, promoting sustainable business practices, and investing in research and innovation, EP can be made more effective in mitigating environmental pollution [ 78 , 79 ].

2.13 Statistical snapshots: data-driven analysis of global pollution challenges

A crucial connection exists between technology and the environment in today’s fast-paced world. Data-driven analysis uncovers insights and trends using data to understand the significant pollution issues worldwide [ 80 ].

2.14 Air pollution

Air pollution threatens global health, from smog hanging over cities to smoke inside homes. According to a recent report [ 81 ] by the World Health Organization (WHO) on global air pollution, almost all of the global population (99%) is exposed to air pollution levels that put different populations across the globe at an increased risk for diseases, including heart disease, stroke, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, cancer, and pneumonia. The WHO actively monitors exposure levels and health impacts, such as deaths and Disability-Adjusted Life Years (DALYs), attributable to national, regional, and global air pollution from both ambient (outdoor) and household sources. These estimates play a crucial role in official reporting, including the World Health Statistics and the Sustainable Development Goals. The air pollution data portal provided by the WHO reveals alarming statistics, indicating a burden of disease with 6.7 million deaths annually attributed to exposure to ambient and household air pollution. Additionally, household exposure remains a significant concern, with 2.3 billion people relying on polluting fuels and technologies for cooking as of 2021. Strategies such as air quality monitoring, urban planning, education, legislation, and enforcement should be adopted with global cooperation to address the pervasive and severe impact of air pollution on public health worldwide [ 81 ].

2.15 Global carbon project

The global carbon project assesses anthropogenic carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) emissions and distribution among the atmosphere, ocean, and terrestrial biosphere providing an understanding of the global carbon cycle, shaping effective climate policies, and projecting future climate change. Recent data from the global carbon budget as summarized in Table  1 indicate that in 2022, global fossil CO 2 emissions, including cement carbonation, marginally exceeded pre-COVID-19 pandemic levels, registering at 10.0 GtC yr −1 (gigatons of carbon per year). Regionally, emissions experienced a 0.9% decrease in China and a 0.8% reduction in the European Union, while the United States, India, and the rest of the world saw increases of 1.5%, 6%, and 1.7%, respectively. The carbon project report indicated varied trends with coal, oil, and gas emissions exhibiting changes of 1.0%, 2.2%, and − 0.2%, respectively. Notably, fossil CO 2 emissions from 24 countries decreased during the decade 2012–2021, contributing about 2.4 GtC yr −1 (8.8 GtCO 2 ) to global emissions. Deforestation remains a key contributor, with emissions at 1.8 ± 0.4 GtC yr −1 over the 2012–2021 period. There is an urgent need for global emissions reduction efforts to align with climate targets. The concentration of CO 2 in the atmosphere in 2022 marked a 51% increase above pre-industrial levels [ 82 ]

2.16 Gas emissions

The Emissions Gap Report 2023, authored by the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP), indicated escalating challenges posed by greenhouse gas emissions, soaring temperatures, and intensifying climate impacts as summarized in Table  2 . This report assesses the gap between pledged greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions reductions and those required to align with the long-term temperature goal of the Paris Agreement. In 2022, global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions soared to an unprecedented record of 57.4 GtCO 2 e, with fossil fuel combustion and industrial processes contributing a significant two-thirds of the total. Rapid increases in methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N 2 O), and fluorinated gases (F-gases) emissions added to the environmental challenge. Global net land use, land-use change, and forestry (LULUCF) CO 2 emissions remained steady. Based on existing policies of the Paris Agreement, progress has been made with a reduction in the projected increase of greenhouse gas emissions for 2030 from 16 to 3%, this highlights the urgency of addressing disparities in emissions contribution. There is a need for immediate and accelerated mitigation actions to achieve the deep annual emission cuts necessary to narrow the emissions gap. This can be achieved by urging nations to accelerate low-carbon development transformations and developed countries to take more ambitious steps while supporting developing nations in their pursuit of low-emission growth [ 83 ].

2.17 Water pollution

In 2021, the global water crisis persisted, affecting over 2 billion people in water-stressed countries, a situation expected to worsen due to climate change and population growth. Disturbingly, in 2022, at least 1.7 billion people globally utilized drinking water contaminated with feces, posing severe risks to public health. Microbial contamination from such sources is a primary threat to water safety, leading to diseases like diarrhea, cholera, dysentery, typhoid, and polio, causing an estimated 505,000 diarrheal deaths annually. While 73% of the global population (6 billion people) had access to safely managed drinking water services in 2022, disparities persisted. The remaining 2.2 billion people lacked such services, facing issues ranging from basic access within a 30-min round trip to collecting water from unprotected sources [ 84 ]. These statistics as presented in Table  3 underscore the far-reaching consequences of drinking water on global health. World Health Organization (WHO) plays a crucial role in global water quality, effective use of water quality guidelines and emphasis on health-based effects with provided regulations and frameworks for managing these risks globally should be adopted in various nations to tackle water pollution [ 85 ].

2.18 Global pollution

The Lancet Commission on Pollution and Health disclosed that pollution accounted for a staggering 9 million premature deaths in 2015, emerging as the world’s predominant environmental risk factor for both disease and premature mortality. This estimation has been revisited using data from the Global Burden of Diseases, Injuries, and Risk Factors Study 2019, revealing that pollution continues to be responsible for approximately 9 million deaths annually as summarized in Table  4 , translating to one in six global fatalities. While there have been declines in deaths associated with certain types of pollution linked to extreme poverty, the progress is counteracted by escalating deaths attributable to ambient air pollution and toxic chemical pollution, particularly lead. The unintended consequences of industrialization and urbanization have propelled a 7% increase in deaths from these modern pollution risk factors since 2015 and a staggering 66% surge since 2000 [ 86 ].

2.19 Synthesis of landmark studies

The incorporation of a diverse range of scholarly literature within this study served to elucidate the landscape of global environmental-conscious initiatives. This methodological approach helped to craft a coherent narrative and facilitate a critical assessment. This study adopts a holistic approach, this approach allows for a more open synthesis of information by providing an enriched perspective, understanding, and recommendations for the global issues of interest.

Taxing is pivotal in pollution control and sustainable development. Research on the Influence of taxation on the sustainable development goals for the year 2030 [ 87 ], explored the relationship between various taxes and sustainable development goals (SDGs). Findings indicated a positive association between taxes and SDGs; however, a singular tax type may not uniformly contribute to SDGs. This varies across countries and emphasizes the need for enhanced tax policies. To address this, a careful environmental tax policy design specific to various countries with consideration of broader socio-economic implications should be implemented globally . Ecological development and green technology are crucial factors driving the prevention of environmental pollution globally. The relationship between green investment, natural resources, green technology innovation, and economic growth has been shown to have an impact on the ecological development and footprint in China [ 88 ]. Findings indicate a significant positive short- and long-term association between these factors and the ecological footprint. Implementing environmental policies such as green investment, rigorous regulations on natural resource rent, and fostering green technology innovation for optimal efficiency will help minimize environmental pollution globally.

2.20 Unraveling CO 2 emission dynamics: alternative policies and regional perspectives

Recent studies have raised concerns about the possible influence of information and communication technologies (ICTs) on environmental pollution. A study by [ 89 ] showed that ICTs increase carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) emissions, contributing to environmental issues. This can be addressed by good policies and effective legal systems for environmental protection, legal systems crucially contribute to the mitigation of carbon emissions [ 90 ]. Land freight structures such as rail and road freight share have reportedly contributed to the intensity of carbon emission globally [ 91 ]. Ref. [ 92 ] An assessment of the impact of freight structures on carbon emissions in 16 Chinese provinces revealed that freight structures indirectly affect CO 2 emissions through the scale effect, which necessitates various nations to introduce region-specific carbon reduction strategies to minimize global pollution. Urban development is also crucial to environmental quality, urban agglomerations have been found to have a higher impact on CO 2 emissions in upper-middle-income countries resulting in overconcentration and urban sprawl. These challenges in middle-income countries contribute to several global environmental challenges, enhanced urban policies, particularly in upper-middle-income economies, improved infrastructure, efficient transportation, and stringent regulations on infrastructure development will be significant in addressing these challenges. Transportation, industrialization, and urbanization are major drivers of environmental pollution [ 93 ]. To address the escalating global concern over environmental pollution propelled by these factors, there is a need to minimize population-driven environmental degradation through efficient energy usage awareness, renewable energy investments, and green innovation.

Many countries around the globe have tackled environmental pollution using commercial policies such as export tax policies by implementing expansionary and contractionary commercial policies. A study [ 94 ] in Australia introduced a novel viewpoint by merging environmental economics with commercial policies. This research showed the repercussions of CO 2 emissions (CO 2 e) over 42 years within the Australian context revealing a positive long-term association between expansionary commercial policy and CO 2 e. Conversely, contractionary commercial and monetary policies demonstrate effectiveness in mitigating CO 2 e. From these findings, it is necessary to formulate environmentally conscious commercial and monetary policies, advocating for higher export taxes on environmentally detrimental industries and incentives for cleaner technologies. Also, considering the environmental implications of remittances and fossil fuels, the integration of green consumption programs can be very significant in minimizing global pollution and sustainable development. However, there is a need to explore alternative policies and diverse regions to understand the relationship between commercial policies and CO 2 e [ 95 , 96 ].

2.21 Tailoring policies for sustainable growth in the face of environmental challenges

Innovations in green energy, natural resources, and environmental policy are significant in managing environmental pollution. In a pioneering effort to examine the causal impact of green energy innovations (GENI), natural resources (NRSS), and environmental policy (ENPY) on sustainable growth and energy transition in the US [ 97 ], advocates for an environmentally friendly economic growth, a positive impact of environmental policies in promoting sustainable growth and energy transition . By bolstering policies that promote the responsible utilization of natural resources and encourage innovations in green energy, providing tax incentives for environmentally conscientious businesses, and addressing the environmental externalities associated with manufacturing firms, nations can effectively mitigate environmental degradation . However geographical consideration is a major limitation in implementing these strategies, this can be addressed through regional customization tailoring policies to the unique characteristics and needs of different geographical areas.

In recent times, there have been several international, national, regional, and corporate environmental policies, however, pollution is still on the rise due to the ineffectiveness and implementation challenges. The ineffectiveness of environmental policies lies with the challenge of policymakers encountering dated information, personal experiences, and individual observations, this can be addressed through policy evaluation, data reliability, and stakeholder engagement in achieving a balance between development and environmental protection [ 98 ]. The process-based technical framework for policy environmental impact assessment (PB-EIA) approach presents practical and systematic methods to evaluate the environmental impact of policies. A recent study [ 99 ] applied PB-EIA to the use of wastewater resources in China. Findings showed constraints in the policy's formulation and implementation, tied to institutional, technological, and economic factors, with identified negative environmental impacts related to energy consumption and carbon emissions. Application of the PB-EIA framework to real-world cases will help mitigate environmental policy failures, shedding light on the complex interplay of factors influencing policy outcomes .

2.22 Balancing act: mitigating unintended consequences in pollution control policies

Research has indicated that conducting thorough impact assessments before enacting policies is a crucial approach to mitigating unintended consequences [ 100 ]. These assessments evaluate environmental effects by considering social, economic, and health implications. Mitigating potential trade-offs and unintended consequences associated with pollution control policies requires a refined approach. Drawing insights from a study by [ 101 ] on the analysis of urban green and blue space interventions, a successful strategy involves understanding the complexity of the social-ecological system influenced by pollution control measures. To avoid potential trade–offs, clear articulation of policy objectives and consideration of diverse stakeholder perspectives by including industry representatives, environmental groups, and affected communities, in the policymaking process and, regular monitoring and evaluation, ensure the adaptability of policies over time. Public awareness, engagement, and collaboration between institutions also contribute to the success of pollution control initiatives or industry displacement [ 86 ].

2.23 Promoting sustainable consumption: strategies for source-based pollution mitigation

Plans for sustainable consumption are vital to combat pollution at its inception to lessen the negative ecological impact generated by consumption habits, which have profound ramifications for our planet. The adoption of sustainable consumption habits by individuals and organizations can shrink the global carbon footprint and contribute to creating an environmentally responsible society. Central to these strategies is the emphasis on promoting knowledge and understanding, fostering understanding of the importance of sustainable consumption and the ramifications of individual choices. Initiatives such as awareness campaigns, forums, and programs play a pivotal role in enabling individuals to explore avenues for minimizing their environmental impact and championing eco-friendly lifestyles [ 102 ]. Additionally, integrating sustainability education into school curricula emerges as a crucial measure to instill environmentally conscious morals from an early age [ 103 ]. Another significant tactic is policy creation and enforcement. Government bodies can hugely influence the promotion of sustainable consumption by introducing eco-focused regulations and policies. Methods such as taxing high carbon-emission products, subsidizing renewable energy and advocating businesses to utilize sustainable production techniques can tip the balance towards a greener society and lifestyle [ 104 ].

Integral to the sustainability journey are technological advancements and innovation, serving as pivotal drivers. Progress leads to the creation of novel solutions addressing pollution. These technological strides not only tackle environmental challenges but also pave the way for more sustainable goods and services such as electric vehicles, renewable energy sources, and eco-friendly materials. Endorsing and investing in these areas accelerates the shift toward a more sustainable economy, thereby diminishing our environmental impact [ 105 ]. Also, it is recommended to offer businesses and consumers incentives or subsidies for adopting sustainable measures or opting for eco-friendly products. The establishment of reward programs serves as an additional means to cultivate behaviors aligned with responsible consumption [ 106 ].

2.24 Managing synergies and conflicts between economic agreements and global environmental policies for pollution control

Balancing economic development and environmental sustainability while addressing potential conflicts between economic agreements and global environmental policies is very vital in pollution prevention and control. Policymakers can pursue this goal by embedding environmental policies and standards into trade agreements by ensuring participating countries comply with pollution control measures. It is vital to establish a framework motivating countries to exceed environmental standards, fostering a race toward higher standards rather than a race to the bottom. The policies should remain adaptable, and regularly reviewed and coherence between national and international economic and environmental policies must be maintained to avoid contradictions that could undermine pollution control efforts [ 107 ]. In addition, policymakers should consider making trade agreements with a specific focus on advancing green and sustainable practices. These agreements can offer incentives for adopting environmentally friendly technologies, renewable energy sources, and sustainable resource management. Implement mechanisms and standards that reward countries for adopting and enforcing stringent pollution control measures [ 108 ]. Once standards are set, a robust monitoring system should be established to ensure countries adhere to both trade and environmental agreements. Effective enforcement measures, including penalties for non-compliance, are essential to dissuade countries from neglecting their environmental responsibilities. Moreover, incentives or rewards should be provided to businesses and countries that exceed pollution control standards [ 109 ]. Also, engaging various stakeholders, such as environmental organizations, businesses, and local communities, is critical in the negotiation and implementation of trade and environmental policies. This inclusive approach fosters collaboration, considering the diverse perspectives and needs of different groups [ 110 ].

3 Holistic approaches to addressing global environmental pollution

Diagnosis of pollution hotspots, processes, and systems: One of the primary methods for diagnosing pollution hotspots is through the collection and analysis of data on pollutants in the environment by monitoring the levels of pollutants in air, water, and soil, as well as tracking emissions from industrial processes and transportation sources. By analyzing this data, researchers can identify patterns and trends in pollution levels and determine where pollution hotspots are likely to occur [ 111 ]. Another method for diagnosing pollution hotspots is through the use of modeling tools and on-the-ground assessments of the physical and social conditions in a given area by examining the distribution of industrial facilities and transportation routes, as well as assessing the health and economic impacts of pollution on local communities [ 112 ].

Swift interventions in reducing wastes at source: This can be achieved through a variety of methods such as extended producer responsibility programs, which require manufacturers to take responsibility for the environmental impacts of their products [ 113 ]. Another strategy is to reduce the use of single-use plastics and other disposable items, using reusable containers and packaging, and adopting sustainable procurement practices that prioritize products with minimal packaging made from recycled materials [ 114 ].

Elevating the yield and quality of products by optimizing production processes, is done by analyzing the steps involved in production and identifying areas where efficiencies can be gained and waste can be minimized. By streamlining processes, reducing downtime, and improving production flow, manufacturers can increase their output without increasing their resource consumption [ 115 ]. Implementing quality control measures is also critical to elevating the yield and quality of products, this involves the establishment of standards for product quality and ensuring that products meet these standards through regular inspections and testing [ 116 ].

Value addition to products through product innovation by developing new product features, and technologies that improve performance, and functionality and creating entirely new products that meet emerging customer needs and emission standards [ 117 ].

Integration of concerns of stakeholders on environmental initiatives by dialoguing with stakeholders and seeking inputs and feedback on environmental initiatives and policies. This involves conducting surveys, focus groups, or other forms of consultation to understand stakeholder perspectives and concerns, as well as soliciting feedback on proposed environmental initiatives [ 118 ].

Integration of economic concerns of stakeholders in rolling out policies by conducting a thorough economic impact assessment, analyzing the potential costs and benefits of an initiative, as well as the potential risks and opportunities for different stakeholders. This information can be used to influence decision-making and ensure that policies are designed in a way that maximizes economic benefits and minimizes negative environmental impacts [ 119 ].

Rolling out environmental action programs by developing and implementing strategies to address environmental issues and concerns. These programs typically involve a series of actions, policies, and initiatives aimed at reducing the negative impact of human activities on the environment and promoting sustainable practices. In rolling out environmental action programs, the following steps should be considered; Identifying the environmental issue, conducting research and analysis to understand the root cause of the problem, its scope and impact, and potential solutions, developing a plan of action, engaging stakeholders by involving diverse groups and implementation of plan followed by monitoring and evaluation of progress [ 120 ].

International environmental cooperation: International environmental cooperation is the collaboration and coordination between countries, international organizations, and other stakeholders to address global environmental issues [ 121 ]. International environmental cooperation is essential for addressing global environmental challenges, as many environmental issues such as climate change, biodiversity loss, and ocean pollution are transboundary and cannot be solved by individual countries acting alone. This can be achieved by sharing of knowledge, resources, and best practices to develop effective policies and programs [ 122 ].

Public accessibility of environmental information from authorities, is essential for ensuring transparency and accountability in environmental decision-making processes. It also enables public participation in environmental governance by allowing citizens to make informed decisions and contribute to environmental policy-making [ 123 ].

Improving the efficiency of existing controls by optimizing the effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of measures and regulations designed to protect the environment including strategies to improve the implementation of existing regulations, streamline enforcement processes, and enhance monitoring and reporting mechanisms. Existing environmental controls can be improved through risk-based approaches (targeting enforcement efforts on activities that pose the highest environmental risks by prioritizing high-risk activities) and performance-based approaches (setting performance standards for specific sectors, and allowing flexibility in how those standards are achieved), compliance assistance (providing support and guidance such as technical assistance and training programs to businesses to help them comply with environmental regulations.) and Regulatory reform (reviewing and updating existing regulations to ensure they are effective, efficient, and up-to-date by removing redundant or outdated requirements, streamlining approval processes, and improving the clarity and transparency of regulations) [ 124 ].

Installation of technologies to control pollution: Pollution control technologies are designed to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of industrial processes, reduce waste and emissions, and protect the environment and human health [ 125 ]. Air pollution control technologies such as particulate control systems, electrostatic precipitators, and scrubbers could be applied to remove pollutants from industrial exhaust gases [ 126 ], water pollution control technologies including wastewater treatment systems, sedimentation tanks, and filtration systems can be used to remove pollutants from industrial wastewater before it is discharged into the environment [ 127 ] and solid waste management technologies such as recycling and composting systems, landfill liners, and leachate treatment systems can be used to reduce the amount of waste generated and manage the disposal of waste [ 125 , 128 ]. Also, hazardous waste management technologies such as incinerators, chemical treatment systems, and stabilization and solidification processes should be designed to safely manage and dispose of hazardous waste [ 129 ].

Efficient system of taxation on municipal waste disposal and effective landfill location and management [ 124 , 130 ]. The imposition of fees or taxes on the disposal of municipal waste can create economic incentives for individuals and businesses to reduce waste generation and increase recycling and reuse, which can help to conserve natural resources and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Proper landfill siting and management by using engineered liners and caps, proper waste placement, and compaction. Factors such as geology, hydrology, and proximity to sensitive areas should be considered for proper siting of landfills [ 131 ].

Switching to more advanced technologies as a replacement for existing pollution control techniques, by using newer and more efficient technologies to reduce pollution in industrial processes. These technologies should be designed to replace older, less effective pollution control techniques, which may be less efficient or effective at reducing pollution [ 132 ].

Strict adherence and application of the principles of the Stockholm declaration in all various nations [ 133 ]. This includes safeguarding natural resources and wildlife at all cost, eliminating of weapons of mass destruction, sharing and preventing the exhaustion of non-renewable natural resources, assisting developing countries to tackle pollution, preventing of damaging pollution in oceans, eliminating environmental problems by planning human settlements, application of science and technology to improve the environment, making essential environmental education, appropriate policies by governments, promotion of environmental research in developing countries, international cooperation on environmental issues, safe exploitation of resources by states in order not to endanger others and establishment of national standards by each nation [ 130 , 134 ].

Transitioning to a Circular Economy: The goal of transitioning to a circular economy model is to minimize waste and maximize the efficient use of resources [ 135 ]. This involves reducing the consumption of raw materials, promoting recycling and reuse, and designing products to last longer and be recyclable. By doing so, pollution associated with extraction, production, and disposal can be reduced [ 136 ].

Promoting environmental education and awareness by integrating environmental education into school curricula, conducting awareness campaigns, and fostering a sense of responsibility and stewardship among communities [ 137 ].

Restoring and Conserving Ecosystems by rehabilitating degraded ecosystems and establishing protected areas to preserve crucial habitats [ 124 ].

Prioritizing green infrastructure and urban planning by developing green spaces, urban forests, green roofs, and sustainable transportation systems, which can contribute to pollution mitigation and, improve air and water quality [ 124 ].

Encouraging research and innovation to discover new solutions to global environmental challenges [ 138 ]. This can be achieved by supporting scientific research, technological advancements, and interdisciplinary collaborations to develop cleaner technologies, alternative energy sources, and more effective methods for controlling pollution [ 124 ].

Promoting corporate and social responsibility by encouraging businesses to adopt sustainable practices, reduce pollution in their operations, and promote transparency and accountability, which can significantly impact global environmental pollution [ 139 ].

4 Future perspectives

One potential area of growth in environmental policy is the use of technology to address environmental challenges such as advances in water treatment technologies. This includes innovations in renewable energy, energy storage, carbon capture, and storage could play an important role in reducing greenhouse gas emissions. As the global community continues to recognize the urgency of addressing environmental pollution, policy frameworks are expected to evolve and become more stringent, incorporating insights from ongoing research and global collaborations. The integration of advanced technologies such as artificial intelligence, remote sensing, and data analytics into environmental monitoring and management is anticipated to enhance the accuracy and efficiency of pollution control efforts.

5 Summary and conclusion

The escalating challenge of global environmental pollution demands urgent and collaborative action. This review highlights the varied nature of pollution, encompassing air, water, soil, and noise pollution, each contributing to environmental degradation and public health crises. Industrial activities, transportation, and agricultural practices are identified as principal anthropogenic culprits, necessitating the adoption of cleaner technologies, sustainable farming, and enhanced waste management practices. The implementation of preventive environmental management (PEM) and stringent environmental policies (EP) emerges as a pivotal strategy in combating pollution. Notably, the paper highlights the success of China's green growth due to rigorous EP enforcement, reflecting the potential for substantial improvements in environmental technology and policy. The review also recognizes the inherent challenges in policy implementation, marked by constraints such as non-compliance, economic barriers, and insufficient international cooperation. Despite these obstacles, the paper advocates for innovative solutions like satellite imaging for pollution monitoring, international research collaborations, and the formulation of global environmental indices to assess and enhance the efficacy of pollution management. This study recommends a holistic approach that aligns with sustainable development goals, urging nations to adopt and enforce comprehensive EPs and PEMs. While recognizing the complexity of global governance in environmental matters, there is a need for the role of institutional quality, well-formulated policies that are sensitive to national sovereignty yet effective on a global scale. Ultimately, these concerted efforts can lead to a significant reduction in pollution, fostering a healthier planet for current and future generations.

Data Availability

Not applicable.

Change history

18 march 2024.

A Correction to this paper has been published: https://doi.org/10.1007/s44274-024-00048-y

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Awewomom, J., Dzeble, F., Takyi, Y.D. et al. Addressing global environmental pollution using environmental control techniques: a focus on environmental policy and preventive environmental management. Discov Environ 2 , 8 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s44274-024-00033-5

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• Published: 22 July 2023

Global air pollution exposure and poverty

• Jun Rentschler   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-2014-2124 1 &
• Nadezda Leonova   ORCID: orcid.org/0009-0001-6968-1794 1  

Nature Communications volume  14 , Article number:  4432 ( 2023 ) Cite this article

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Air pollution is one of the leading causes of health complications and mortality worldwide, especially affecting lower-income groups, who tend to be more exposed and vulnerable. This study documents the relationship between ambient air pollution exposure and poverty in 211 countries and territories. Using the World Health Organization’s (WHO) 2021 revised fine particulate matter (PM2.5) thresholds, we show that globally, 7.3 billion people are directly exposed to unsafe average annual PM2.5 concentrations, 80 percent of whom live in low- and middle-income countries. Moreover, 716 million of the world’s lowest income people (living on less than $1.90 per day) live in areas with unsafe levels of air pollution, especially in Sub-Saharan Africa. Air pollution levels are particularly high in lower-middle-income countries, where economies tend to rely more heavily on polluting industries and technologies. These findings are based on high-resolution air pollution and population maps with global coverage, as well as subnational poverty estimates based on harmonized household surveys.

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Introduction.

Air pollution has wide-ranging and profound impacts on human health and well-being. Poor air quality has been shown to be responsible for over 4 million deaths each year from outdoor pollutants, 2.3 million from indoor air pollution 1 , and a wide range of cardiovascular, respiratory, and neurological diseases 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 . It also impacts productivity, exacerbates inequalities 2 , and reduces cognitive abilities 3 .

Studies show that the vast majority of the world’s population faces unsafe air pollution levels 4 , 5 . Exposure is especially high in major urban centers, where 86 percent of people live in areas that exceed the WHO’s 2005 guideline threshold of 10 μg/m 3 6 . Yet, our understanding of what constitutes unsafe levels of air pollution levels is still evolving. Based on the latest medical evidence, the WHO updated its air quality guidelines in 2021, revising the threshold down to 5 μg/m 3 and significantly increasing the stringency of its 2005 guidelines.

A growing evidence base also highlights the unequal distribution of exposure to and impact of air pollution, with the burden falling disproportionately on lower-income and more marginalized communities 7 , 8 . The evidence is in strong agreement that air pollution—predominantly the result of human activities—is one of the leading causes of death in low- and middle-income countries 9 , where less stringent air quality regulations, the prevalence of older, more polluting machinery and vehicles, fossil fuel subsidies, congested urban transport systems, rapidly developing industrial sectors, and cut-and-burn practices in agriculture all contribute to heightened concentration levels 10 .

As health and productivity suffer, evidence from the United States has shown that air pollution reinforces socioeconomic inequalities—with ethnic minorities and low-income populations often exposed to higher pollution levels 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 —and that these disparities have increased over time 7 . These groups also tend to be more vulnerable to the impacts of pollution 8 , as low-paying jobs are more likely to require physical and outdoor labor, increasing people’s exposure. With industrial plants, transport corridors, and other pollution sources disproportionately placed in low-income neighborhoods, air pollution is higher in these areas 7 , 17 , 18 , driving down housing prices and reinforcing their status as low-income neighborhoods 19 , 20 . Finally, constraints on healthcare accessibility, availability, and quality further increase air pollution-related mortality among low-income groups 9 , 21 .

Substantial evidence from the United States illustrates how socioeconomic marginalization can increase people’s exposure and vulnerability to air pollution, and there are many documented individual cases of environmental inequalities 22 . But there is limited evidence at the global scale on how people’s exposure to harmful air pollution interacts with poverty and how this pollution burden is distributed across and within low- and middle-income countries. This is often due to a lack of socioeconomic data with high spatial disaggregation.

A better understanding of the interplay between air pollution and poverty could be crucial for several reasons 23 . Studies from high-income countries on the mortality and morbidity associated with air pollution may not be directly transferable to low-income countries and communities, where the nature of occupations and health care differ substantially 24 . The health and productivity implications of unsafe air pollution will also impact low- and middle-income countries’ socioeconomic development prospects. This is especially pertinent in low-income countries, which—as this study shows—still tend to have relatively low pollution levels compared to more industrialized, middle-income countries. In these countries, it is important to ensure that future development progress does not intensify air pollution, with its associated adverse effects.

Against this context, this study explores the global prevalence of unsafe outdoor air pollution and the way it interacts with poverty (defined as daily expenditure below $1.90, $3.20, and $5.50, respectively, as defined by the World Bank; see Methods). Reflecting 2018 and 2020 conditions, we use global high-resolution data on ambient air pollution (outdoor PM2.5 concentrations), population distribution, and poverty to provide aggregate exposure estimates (see Methods). We show that pollution levels are most hazardous in middle-income countries, where economies tend to rely more heavily on polluting industries and technologies.

Overall, this study contributes to the literature in two ways by offering global estimates of (i) population PM2.5 exposure, based on the WHO’s revised air pollution guidelines 25 , with detailed national and subnational estimates and (ii) how these interact with national and subnational poverty levels.

Global and regional air pollution exposure

Our estimates show that, globally, 7.3 billion people face air pollution levels that are considered unsafe by the WHO—that is, they are exposed to annual average PM2.5 concentrations over 5 μg/m 3 , which increases mortality rates by 4 percent compared to safe areas. Of these, 6.2 billion are directly exposed to at least moderate (over 10 μg/m 3 ) air pollution levels and an 8 percent increase in mortality risk, and 2.8 billion are exposed to hazardous (over 35 μg/m 3 ) pollution levels and a 24 percent increase in mortality risk. Globally, only 462 million people are exposed to PM2.5 concentrations that are lower than 5 μg/m 3 , the WHO’s “safe” threshold (Fig.  1a ). Considering a global population of 7.7 billion, this means that approximately 94 percent of the world’s population is exposed to unsafe levels of PM2.5 concentration.

a Global population headcounts exposed to different levels of air pollution risk. b Number of people and share of population exposed to air pollution, by region. c Top ten countries with highest population exposure to unsafe PM2.5 levels. Hazard categories are defined based on estimated average annual PM2.5 concentration levels. “Unsafe” refers to PM2.5 concentrations over 5 μg/m 3 . “Hazardous” refers to PM2.5 concentrations over 35 μg/m 3 .

Regionally disaggregating global exposure headcounts show that air pollution risks are particularly prevalent in some regions. At 2.2 billion people, East Asia and Pacific (EAP) has the highest number of people exposed to unsafe PM2.5 concentrations, corresponding to about 95 percent of its total population. In South Asia (SAR), about 1.8 billion people (99 percent) are exposed to unsafe air pollution levels. In all other regions, the share of the overall population exposed to unsafe PM2.5 concentrations is smaller, at 92–94 percent in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA), Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), Europe and Central Asia (ECA), and the United States and Canada (USA & CAN), and 84 percent in Latin America and the Caribbean (Fig.  1b ).

Countries with the largest air pollution-exposed populations

Estimates confirm that several countries stand out with particularly large populations directly exposed to unsafe air pollution levels 26 . The world’s two most populous countries—China and India—have the highest absolute population exposure to unsafe air pollution and are home to about 38 percent of all people exposed to unsafe concentrations of PM2.5. In India, 1.36 billion people (99 percent of the population) are exposed to unsafe PM2.5 concentrations (over 5 μg/m 3 ); and 1.33 billion (96 percent) to hazardous levels (over 35 μg/m 3 ). In China, 1.41 billion people (99 percent of the population) face unsafe PM2.5 concentrations (over 5 μg/m 3 ), and 0.765 billion (53 percent) face hazardous levels (Fig. 1c ).

Presenting relative exposure estimates for all countries, Fig.  2 demonstrates that in large parts of the world and across all regions, the vast majority of the population is exposed to PM2.5 levels over 5 μg/m 3 . Unlike flood hazards, which are highly localized, air pollution tends to cover and move across large areas, blanketing entire cities or regions. So, if large proportions of a population live in densely populated areas, they tend to be collectively exposed to unsafe pollution levels. Considering a higher pollution threshold of 15 μg/m 3 shows that populations in low- and middle-income countries—in parts of Central and South America, across Western and Middle Africa, Eastern Europe, Middle East, and Central, South, and East Asia—face high exposure levels (Fig.  2b ), while in Eastern China, the Indian subcontinent, and parts of West Africa, large parts of the population face hazardous PM2.5 concentrations (Fig.  2c ).

a Percentage of the population exposed to PM2.5 over 5 μg/m. b Percentage of population exposed to PM2.5 over 15 μg/m 3 . c Percentage of population exposed to PM2.5 over 35 μg/m 3 .

Poverty and air pollution

Evidence suggests that low-income communities tend to be both disproportionately exposed to unsafe air pollution levels and more vulnerable to serious health impacts 3 , 27 . Low-income groups tend to be more exposed to air pollution because they are more likely to depend on jobs that require outdoor physical labor, and when affected by pollution-related diseases, they tend to have more limited access to adequate and affordable health care, increasing mortality rates. Low-income countries often also have less developed healthcare systems. So, considering the interplay between pollution, exposure, and poverty can shed light on the vulnerability of affected populations.

Combining air pollution exposure estimates with survey-based subnational poverty data allows us to estimate exposure of the global population living in poverty (Table  1 ). Our estimates show that 716 million people living on less than $1.90 per day are directly exposed to unsafe PM2.5 concentrations—405 million (57 percent) of them in Sub-Saharan Africa (Fig.  3 )—and 275 million are exposed to hazardous PM2.5 concentrations. Countries where poverty and unsafe air pollution coincide also score poorly in terms of health care access and quality, thus exacerbating vulnerabilities (Fig.  3c ). Approximately one in every 10 people exposed to unsafe levels of air pollution lives in extreme poverty.

a Number of people living in poverty and facing unsafe air pollution exposure, at different poverty thresholds and by region. b Top ten countries—percentage of people living on $1.90/day and exposed to hazardous PM2.5 levels. c Health care access and quality in countries with high air pollution and poverty. The Healthcare Access & Quality (HAQ) index is by GBD 2019 Healthcare Access and Quality Collaborators (2022) 38 , 39 , 40 , 41 .

When we use less extreme (i.e., higher) poverty thresholds, the number of air pollution and poverty-exposed people increases significantly. We estimate that around 1.8 billion people living on less than $3.20 a day and 2.9 billion people living on less than $5.50 a day live in unsafe air pollution areas. In Sub-Saharan Africa, increasing the poverty threshold from $1.90 to $5.50 doubles the number of people living in poverty and exposed to unsafe PM2.5 levels from 405 to 877 million (In Sub-Saharan Africa, 39.3 percent of the region’s total population lives in extreme poverty ($1.90), and 91.82 percent of the region’s total population faces unsafe PM2.5 levels (over 5 μg/m3)). In South Asia and East Asia, it increases more than six-fold, from 220 million to 1.4 billion and 38 to 229 million, respectively. Overall, four in 10 people exposed to unsafe PM2.5 levels live on less than $5.50 a day.

Of the 716 million people living in extreme poverty and exposed to unsafe levels of air pollution, almost half (48.6 percent) are in India, Nigeria, and the Democratic Republic of Congo. With over 202 million, India has the highest number of people living in extreme poverty and exposed to unsafe PM2.5 levels, corresponding to 14.7 percent of its overall population. The 10 countries with the most people who are both living on less than $1.90 a day and exposed to unsafe PM2.5 levels account for 67.8 percent of the world’s people exposed to poverty and unsafe PM2.5 concentrations; and seven of the top ten are in Sub-Saharan Africa (Fig.  3b ). Although extreme poverty and exposure to unsafe PM2.5 concentrations coincide most acutely in Sub-Saharan Africa, when considering higher poverty thresholds, exposure is also high in the Middle East, South and East Asia, and Latin America (Fig.  4 ).

a Share of the population exposed to unsafe PM2.5 levels and living on less than $1.90/day. b Share of the population exposed to unsafe PM2.5 levels and living on less than $3.20/day. c Share of the population exposed to unsafe PM2.5 levels and living on less than $5.50/day.

Income and air pollution concentrations

Our estimates on the geographic distribution of PM2.5 exposure suggest that pollution levels differ according to a country’s stage of economic development and industrialization. Most of the people breathing unsafe air live in middle-income countries (Fig.  5 ). Of the 7.3 billion exposed to unsafe concentrations of PM2.5, 3.4 billion (47.3 percent) live in low- or lower-middle-income countries. Of the 2.8 billion worldwide exposed to hazardous PM2.5 levels, 98.6 percent live in middle-income countries, compared to just 1.4 percent (40.5 million) in low- and high-income countries combined.

a Over 5 μg/m 3 (4% increased mortality rate). b Over 10 μg/m 3 (8% increased mortality rate). c Over 35 μg/m 3 (>24% increased mortality rate). d Regional distribution of mean PM2.5 concentrations. Concentration thresholds and estimated mortality rates are based on the WHO Global Air Quality Guidelines 3 , which provide details on estimation methods. LIC are low-income countries, LMIC are lower-middle-income countries, UMIC are upper-middle-income countries, HIC are high-income countries.

As a share of the overall population, PM2.5 exposure is also highest in lower-middle-income countries (Fig.  5 ), with about 64.5 percent of people exposed to PM2.5 levels over 35 μg/m 3 , compared to just 4.4 percent in low-income countries and 0.9 percent in high-income countries. The pattern holds regardless of which concentration threshold we consider (Fig.  5 ). The regional distribution of PM2.5 concentrations (Fig.  5d ) suggests that these high ambient air pollution levels in middle-income counties are located to a large extent in the countries of South and East Asia, which have experienced rapid economic growth and industrialization in recent decades 6 . Computing spatially averaged PM2.5 concentrations for each of the 2,183 subnational areas in this study and statistically examining their relationship with population and income data also suggests that areas with larger populations tend to have higher pollution levels, and average pollution levels appear particularly high for areas in the middle-income category (Supplementary Fig.  3.1 ).

This study offers a comprehensive account of the relationship between outdoor air pollution exposure, economic development, and poverty in 211 countries and territories. Its global exposure estimates highlight that unsafe air quality poses significant health risks to a vast majority of the global population. We find that 7.3 billion people—that is, 94 percent of the world’s population—live in areas that are exposed to PM2.5 concentrations over 5 μg/m 3 , which increases mortality rates by 4 percent. About 2.8 billion people, or 36 percent of the world population, are directly exposed to concentrations above 35 μg/m 3 , which increases mortality rates by over 24 percent.

Our study also shows that pollution levels are particularly high in middle-income countries, where a wide range of factors contribute to increased concentration levels. These include less stringent air quality regulations, the prevalence of older, more polluting machinery and vehicles, fossil fuel subsidies, congested urban transport systems, coal-based residential heating, rapidly developing industrial sectors, and cut-and-burn agricultural practices 6 , 10 . Of the 7.3 billion people exposed to unsafe PM2.5 levels, 80 percent live in low- and middle-income countries. The rapidly growing economies in South and East Asia stand out in terms of absolute exposure, driven by decades of rapid economic growth and industrialization. China (1.41 billion people) and India (1.36 billion) alone account for 38 percent of global exposure to PM2.5 concentrations above WHO guidelines.

This pattern is broadly consistent with the notion of an environmental Kuznets curve, which suggests that air pollution levels would be highest in middle-income countries, where polluting activities, such as manufacturing, dominate the economy while productive capital, such as technology, and regulations tend not to prioritize environmental quality 28 , 29 . In low-income countries, air pollution concentrations would be relatively low, as economic activities, such as agriculture, tend to rely less on fossil fuels, and the consumption of polluting goods—such as high electricity use or private car ownership—is limited to small population groups. In high-income countries, pollution would be low, as economic activity tends to be focused on less polluting sectors, such as services, polluting activities tend to be offshored, and clean technologies are widely available and mandated by regulation.

Yet these results also imply that the pollution intensity along the economic development path is not set in stone. Whether today’s low-income countries indeed witness intensifying pollution as a byproduct of development depends on the availability and affordability of clean technologies, and the incentive structure for adopting them. For example, subsidizing fossil fuel consumption undermines the uptake of clean technologies, entrenching high pollution levels in low- and middle-income countries, where such subsidies are common 30 . Stricter regulations on the embodied pollution content of traded goods can address the offshoring of polluting activities and technologies.

Our study also estimates that 716 million people live in extreme poverty (under $1.90 per day) while facing unsafe air pollution. At least 405 million of them live in Sub-Saharan Africa. Low-income population groups are more likely to perform physical and outdoor labor, and therefore face higher exposure and intake of pollutants. They are particularly vulnerable to prolonged adverse impacts on livelihoods and well-being: with lower access to, and availability and quality of, health care provision, the health risks of exposure to air pollution are probably more severe—and air pollution-related mortality higher—for them than for higher-income households exposed to the same levels. One study on air pollution and infant mortality, for example, suggests that mortality risks in India are two to three times larger than in high-income countries 3 . And, although not covered in this study, exposure to indoor air pollution also affects low-income groups disproportionately, as they tend to be more dependent on polluting, low-cost fuels such as charcoal, kerosene, or firewood for cooking and lighting.

Air pollution is one of the world’s leading causes of death, especially affecting lower-income communities, who tend to be more exposed and more vulnerable. Our estimates affirm the case for implementing targeted measures to reduce the pollution intensity of economic growth—for example, by supporting the uptake of less polluting technologies in industry and infrastructure, or facilitating the transition towards cleaner fuels, particularly electrification.

Measures are also warranted to directly address the disproportionate exposure of low-income communities highlighted in this study. Expanding the provision of affordable and adequate healthcare in large urban centers in low- and middle-income countries can help reduce mortality, bringing it closer to levels experienced in higher-income countries. Mandating transparent accounting for environmental and health externalities in planning decisions can help steer pollution sources—such as industrial zones or power plants—away from low-income communities. Finally, removing incentives that perpetuate the over-consumption of fossil fuels can yield a double dividend for lower-income groups. For example, while fossil fuel subsidies confer disproportionate monetary benefits to richer households, the air pollution externalities associated with subsidized fossil fuel consumption are disproportionately borne by low-income households. Addressing such policy distortions can benefit low-income groups in terms of both fiscal and health benefits.

This section details the datasets used in this study to calculate global population exposure to high concentrations of air pollution.

Air pollution data (PM2.5)

Rather than consider the cumulative load of all pollutants, this study looks at the differentiated exposure to anthropogenic PM2.5 pollution across countries. Particulate matter (PM) is one of the most common pollutants, primarily caused by fossil fuel combustion, such as car engines and coal or gas power plants 10 . Airborne PM is commonly categorized by the diameter of particles—PM2.5 for particles of up to 2.5 µm in diameter, and PM10 for those up to 10 µm in diameter—as this determines aerial transport, removal processes, and impacts within the respiratory tract 3 . This study focuses on PM2.5, for two main reasons. First, as one of the most pervasive and harmful pollutants, which can pass through the lungs into the bloodstream and affect other organs, PM2.5 is responsible for the vast majority of air pollution-related deaths, and its impacts are on the rise. It is estimated that 4.5 million people died in 2019 from adverse health effects related to long-term exposure to ambient air pollution, and that 4.1 million of these deaths were caused by PM2.5 (IHME 2020) 31 . And between 2000 and 2019, PM2.5-attributable deaths increased in all regions except Europe, Latin America, and North America 6 . Second, unlike many other pollutant types, datasets on PM2.5 spatial distribution and concentration levels are available with global coverage. Due to data limitations, this study does not cover indoor air pollution, another pervasive risk to health and well-being, especially in low- and middle-income countries.

We use the gridded dataset of ground-level fine particulate matter (PM2.5) concentrations provided by ref. 32 , which offers both annual and monthly mean concentrations for 1998–2019, with global coverage and at 0.01-degree resolution (Fig.  6 ). The dataset is constructed by combining Aerosol Optical Depth satellite retrievals from the NASA MODIS, MISR, and SeaWIFS instruments with the GEOS-Chem chemical transport model, and subsequently calibrating to global ground-based observations using a geographically weighted regression. The 0.01-degree resolution (equivalent to about 1.1 km at the equator) is well suited for capturing regional variation in concentrations, but not granular local variations.

Estimates represent annual average concentrations in 2018, constructed based on satellite-based remote sensing data, global chemical transport modeling, and ground measurements. (Source: data by van Donkelaar et al. 2021).

As a globally modeled dataset, some uncertainty is to be expected, though sensitivity tests suggest good agreement with ground measurement 32 . More spatially nuanced analysis—for example, at a neighborhood or street level—would require alternative data based on local measures. It should also be noted that the chemical composition of PM2.5 particles can differ by pollution source 33 , and those associated with fossil fuel combustion are more toxic due to higher acidity levels (for example, sulfuric PM from coal burning). The global PM2.5 dataset can inform on total particle concentration, but not on acidity.

Population data

To estimate the location of people, we use the WorldPop Global High-Resolution Population dataset, produced by the University of Southampton, the World Bank, and other partners, which offers global coverage and is available yearly from 2000–20. WorldPop provides several datasets, including poverty, demographics, and urban change mapping. This study uses the population count map, a dataset in a raster format, that provides the number of inhabitants per cell, with a 3-arcsecond resolution, thus specifying the distribution of population. This information is based on administrative or census-based population data, disaggregated to grid cells based on distribution and density of built-up area, which is derived from satellite imagery 34 .

The choice of a population density map is important for estimating people’s exposure to natural hazards. Smith et al. 35 provide a sensitivity analysis for flood exposure assessments using different population density maps, including WorldPop. They show that high-resolution population density maps perform best in capturing local exposure distribution, particularly the High-Resolution Settlement Layer (HRSL), jointly produced by Facebook, Columbia University, and the World Bank, which has 1-arcsecond or ~30-m resolution. But HRSL is only available for a limited number of countries, and WorldPop is shown to perform better than alternatives with global coverage, such as LandScan data (30-arcsecond, ~900-m resolution) 36 .

Subnational poverty rates

For 1755 of the 2183 subnational units, the World Bank’s Global Subnational Poverty Atlas offers poverty estimates, derived from the latest available Living Standards Measurement Survey for the respective country 3 . This harmonized inventory of household surveys offers ground-up empirical poverty estimates. Areas, where no poverty estimates are available tend to be high-income countries and small island states. This study uses the standard World Bank definitions of poverty—that is, daily expenditure thresholds of $1.90, $3.20, and $5.50—to determine the number of people living in poverty in a given subnational administrative unit.

Administrative boundaries

The definition of national administrative boundaries follows the standard World Bank global administrative map. However, national boundaries are further disaggregated into subnational units for all countries where World Bank household surveys are available with subnational representativeness. These subnational units are typically provinces or states but can also include custom groupings of subnational regions determined by the sampling strategy of household surveys. Overall, this study covers 211 countries, disaggregated into 2183 subnational units.

Methodology and stepwise computational process

To estimate the number of people exposed to unsafe air pollution levels, this study follows a computational process in four main steps, outlined here.

Step 1. Resample the PM2.5 data: First, we resample the air pollution map to ensure that pixels align with the gridded population density map to identify average annual PM2.5 concentration levels along a continuous scale.

Step 2. Define air pollution risk categories: Second, we aggregate the values into six risk categories (Table  2 ), defined in line with the WHO’s Air Quality Guidelines 3 , which recommend an annual PM2.5 level of up to 5 µg/m 3 . For countries that exceed this threshold, it recommends interim targets at 10, 15, 25, and 35 μg/m 3 , corresponding to a linearly increasing mortality rate (Table  2 ). At higher concentrations, the concentration-response function of mortality may not be linear 37 . For each country, we assign each 1-degree cell one of the six risk categories, repeating this process for the world’s landmass of 149 million square kilometers, processing about 300 million data points.

Step 3. Assign air pollution risk categories to population headcounts at the pixel level and aggregate to the administrative unit: As the air pollution and population density maps are converted into the same spatial resolution, we assign each population map cell a unique air pollution risk classification and aggregated them to the administrative unit (such as province or district) level. This allows us to calculate population headcounts for each risk category and for each (sub)national administrative unit, yielding an estimate of the number and share of people exposed to no, low, moderate, high, very high, and hazardous air pollution concentrations throughout the year. Finally, we aggregate these into administrative units—including country and subnational units—to yield regional and global estimates.

Step 4. Compute the number of people living in poverty and exposed to air pollution risk: In this final step, we multiply poverty shares with the estimated population headcount exposed to unsafe air pollution, to obtain an estimate of the number of people in each administrative unit living in poverty and exposed to air pollution risk. In the absence of pixel-level poverty share data, we use the World Bank’s Global Subnational Poverty Atlas for these calculations, which provide subnational-level data for at least 153 countries.

Reporting summary

Further information on research design is available in the  Nature Portfolio Reporting Summary linked to this article.

Data availability

Global population count data are provided by WorldPop and publicly available for download at https://hub.worldpop.org/geodata/listing?id=69 . Global PM2.5 concentration maps are provided by van Donkelaar et al. (2021) and are publicly available for download at https://sites.wustl.edu/acag/datasets/surface-pm2-5/ . Global subnational poverty rate estimates are provided by the World Bank and are publicly available for download at https://datacatalog.worldbank.org/search/dataset/0042041 .

Code availability

The Python source code for this study is available at https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.8016653

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Acknowledgements

This study has benefited from helpful comments, feedback, and inputs by Mattia Amadio, Esteban Balseca, Samira Barzin, Lander Bosch, Richard Damania, Ira Dorband, Xinming Du, Bramka Jafino, Kichan Kim, Christoph Klaiber, Helena Naber, Jason Russ, Melda Salhab, Ernesto Sanchez-Triana, Lucy Southwood, Margaret Triyana, and Esha Zaveri. The study was supported by the Korea Green Growth Trust Fund.

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J.R. led the study design, analysis, and drafting. N.L. implemented the computational process and contributed to analysis and drafting. All authors critically revised the manuscript and gave final approval for publication.

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Rentschler, J., Leonova, N. Global air pollution exposure and poverty. Nat Commun 14 , 4432 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-39797-4

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Received : 08 December 2022

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Published : 22 July 2023

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-39797-4

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