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The Shortlist

New Books on the Brain and What It Can and Can’t Do

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By Tali Sharot

• April 16, 2021

USEFUL DELUSIONS The Power and Paradox of the Self-Deceiving Brain By Shankar Vedantam and Bill Mesler 233 pp. Norton. $27.95.

Should we always advocate for truth? History tells us false beliefs can be dangerous, leading to genocide, racism and attacks on democracy. However, they can also bring harmony and help us thrive. Consider the health benefits of placebos or the comfort of religion. It is not the veracity, but the consequence, of a belief that makes it good or bad, Vedantam and Mesler argue. “Life, like evolution and natural selection, ultimately doesn’t care about what’s true. It cares about what works .” And if you believe in science you must acknowledge the overwhelming evidence that false beliefs are necessary for people’s well-being, as they often help reduce anxiety and increase motivation. “You can’t go around thinking of yourself as a breathing piece of defecating meat. It gets in the way of happy hour.”

Accepting that people’s beliefs depend less on evidence than on their hopes, emotions and tribal affiliations is vital for addressing global threats such as climate change. Persuading people to act requires us to go along with how the brain works, rather than working against it. Fighting irrational beliefs with numbers and graphs alone is ineffective. Instead, we must fulfill people’s desires and need for belonging. True to their thesis, Vedantam and Mesler pepper hard data with compelling stories to make their case. Vedantam’s empathy and intuitive understanding of human nature, which shine on his popular “Hidden Brain” podcast, come through in “Useful Delusions.”

A THOUSAND BRAINS A New Theory of Intelligence By Jeff Hawkins 272 pp. Basic Books. $30.

“A Thousand Brains” takes us on a journey from the evolution of our brain to the extinction of our species. Along the way Hawkins beautifully describes neuroanatomy and landmark discoveries in neuroscience, including the existence of cells that signal our location in space and populations of neurons that process information by “voting” to reach a group decision. The book is framed around Hawkins’s theory of intelligence, according to which columns in the neocortex encode thousands of “reference frames.” However, the theory has yet to be empirically tested, and he does not spend much time detailing it or how it could account for high-level functions such as language and thought.

Hawkins, the inventor of the PalmPilot and a neuroscience researcher, aims to crack human intelligence in order to develop artificial intelligence. The problem with current A.I. systems, he explains, is that they can solve only a limited set of predefined problems. They do not possess general intelligence as humans do. According to Hawkins this is because they are unable to represent knowledge. Part of Hawkins’s motivation for developing “true” A.I. is to prepare for human extinction.

Although not predicting when or how we will meet this fate, Hawkins advises readers to craft an “estate plan for humanity” now. Homo sapiens may try to dodge extinction by habitation of other planets, but Hawkins is not optimistic. Instead, he suggests, we would be wise to use machines to preserve human knowledge for the benefit of other beings, even if we are unable to sustain mankind. With this and other ideas Hawkins keeps the reader constantly engaged.

THINK AGAIN The Power of Knowing What You Don’t Know By Adam Grant 307 pp. Viking. $28.

We live in a world where conversations about complex issues, such as infectious disease and climate change, revolve around 280-character statements. Nuance is lost, and opinions rapidly radicalize. This makes the age-old problem of inflexible thinking — in which people have difficulty altering their beliefs even in the face of contradictory evidence — particularly timely.

In “Think Again,” Grant, a psychology professor at Wharton and the author of “Originals” and “Give and Take,” urges us to constantly rethink our beliefs about politics, science, work and relationships. Grant believes we can simultaneously be confident in our ability to uncover the truth while acknowledging we may be wrong at present. We must convey our uncertainties and information gaps to others, he argues. To achieve such “confident humility,” Grant advises us to “seek out information that goes against our views” and “resist the temptation to preach, prosecute or politick.” We should, he suggests, “think like a scientist.”

To illustrate the scientific method of rethinking and revising, Grant describes a study in which he attempted to reduce animosity between Yankee and Red Sox fans. He began by encouraging the rivals to consider their commonalities. This strategy had worked in other contexts but failed in this case. “We both love baseball,” they agreed, but “they like the wrong team.” Attempts to humanize the competitors were also unsuccessful. The antagonism was finally lowered by highlighting the arbitrary nature of the animosity (team allegiance was due to random factors, such as place of birth). No single tool is guaranteed to always help us rethink our views, habits and preferences. This is why we need a diverse set of strategies, which is what Grant offers.

THE HIDDEN SPRING A Journey to the Source of Consciousness By Mark Solms 415 pp. Norton. $28.95.

What is consciousness, how is it generated and why do we need it? These are the big questions Solms, a South African neuropsychologist, tackles in “The Hidden Spring.” There are many things our brain can do unconsciously. For example, we can subliminally process images and words, and approximate the speed of an oncoming car to determine whether to cross the road without being aware we are doing so. There is one thing, according to Solms, that requires consciousness: feelings. You can be unaware of why you are feeling angry or happy, he argues, but you can’t feel angry or happy without being aware of it. He concludes that emotion is “the foundational form of consciousness.”

Emotions are valenced — good or bad — which signals to us what should be approached and what should be avoided. Our most burning needs are prioritized by focusing our attention on a certain feeling so that we take immediate action to fulfill them: When we feel thirsty, we look for water; when we feel lust, we search for a mate. These basic needs and emotions are evolutionarily ancient and rely on subcortical structures deep in our brain. According to Solms, this means most other animals are likely conscious too.

“The Hidden Spring” often requires the reader to work hard to follow Solms’s arguments. But readers who stick with it will be rewarded with interesting ideas about what it means to feel, think and be.

Tali Sharot is the author of “The Influential Mind: What the Brain Reveals About Our Power to Change Others.”

Follow New York Times Books on Facebook , Twitter and Instagram , s ign up for our newsletter or our literary calendar . And listen to us on the Book Review podcast .

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Think Again Book Review, Summary, and Notes

How Strongly I Recommend It:   7 /10 How Likely I Will Gift It:  5/10

What is Think Again Book by Adam Grant about?

The book is about recognizing how much time we spend thinking and forming our thoughts and how less time we spend on not even going back and evaluating them, although we live in a rapidly changing world. Adam Grant conveys the importance of rethinking our easily-formed opinions and explains how to reconsider them and spread the same strategy to the people around us. Grant explains them in three steps: individual rethinking, interpersonal rethinking, and collective rethinking.

🚀 The Book in 3 Sentences

• We often form our opinions easily but rarely reconsider them.
• We don’t always need to think more and more about many topics; rethinking can solve many of our problems once we open our minds to change.
• Creating a learning environment and surrounding ourselves with open-minded people demands changing how we approach people around us.

🎨 Impressions

The book is easy to read. It sparked moments when I closed the book and needed to think about what I had read. Although the reading was enjoyable, I deem the text long. I understand that the narrative is important, and it makes reading fun; I came to the point of skimming one or two stories instead of reading them fully. This is not necessarily a bad thing. Every book and each chapter demands a different reading style. With all that, I liked the idea the book brings: rethinking. Adam Grand didn’t just say to rethink what you think but went on a journey and explained the psychology around rethinking. So, the book is more prosperous than I expected. It could’ve been shorter, but it’s not too long, either.

Who Should Read It?

People who want to create a learning environment, especially leaders.

☘️ How the Book Changed Me

How my life/behavior/thoughts/ideas have changed as a result of reading the book.

• After reading the first chapter, I began recognizing my behavior in different parts of my life (work, personal). At work, I realized I play all the four mindsets mentioned in the chapter (preacher, prosecutor, politician, scientist). However, I’m more of a preacher and prosecutor than a politician at home.
• After reading, I feel like I can be a better leader if I apply a few things from the book to my work: using motivational interviewing when I debate ideas, coaching people better by asking more questions, etc.
• I also understood, once more, the importance of keeping debates on talking about how to do a certain thing instead of why we do it. As a leader, I have a stronger self-argument to think about the why more clearly.

✍️ My Top 3 Quotes from Think Again

“If knowledge is power, knowing what we don’t know is wisdom.”

“Who you are should be a question of what you value, not what you believe.”

“We won’t have much luck changing other people’s minds if we refuse to change ours.”

📒 Think Again Chapter Summary + Notes

A preacher, a prosecutor, a politician, and a scientist walk into your mind.

• We see other people’s behavior while seeing our intention. When someone misses the point or needs to rethink their approach, we swiftly recognize that. When it comes to our own ideas, we favor feeling right over being right. We often don’t form second opinions while expecting them from others.
• Adapting to a changing environment is not something companies do. It is something people do. Many people become experts in their fields and stay there without changing their stance or knowledge stack. The comfort zone makes them vulnerable to change. However, the bests adapt to changing environments with their everyday decisions.
• Preacher: When our beliefs are in jeopardy, we begin preaching to protect and promote our ideas.
• Prosecutor: When we recognize other people’s flaws in their arguments, we prosecute them and try to prove them wrong.
• Politician: When we seek to win the audience, we lobby and campaign our beliefs and ideas for approval.
• Thinking as a scientist (experimentation, skepticism, and reconsidering the approach) forces us to reconsider our stand all the time. Although scientists don’t always apply scientific thinking in their lives, the method works. When we think we’re smart, we change our minds less (confirmation and desirability bias). Scientific thinking is not only reconsidering; it is also being skeptical, searching for what might be wrong when everything is normal.

“Our convictions can lock us in prisons of our own making. The solution is not to decelerate our thinking—it’s to accelerate our rethinking.”

The Armchair Quarterback and the Imposter: Finding the Sweet Spot for Confidence

• The most successful leaders have both humility and confidence. They believe in their strengths; they are also aware of their weaknesses. They can change their minds when they are proven wrong.
• Motivates us to work harder. (naturally)
• Motivates us to work smarter. If we don’t believe we’re going to win, we have nothing to lose to rethink our approach.
• It makes us better learners—the doubt of not knowing opens us to learning from others.

The Joy of Being Wrong: The Thrill of Not Believing Everything You Think

• Our previous knowledge and beliefs make us less open to new things. That’s why we often hear “That’s not how we do things here.” phrases. When we haven’t formed any beliefs, we are more open to being wrong. We’re open to change because we’re learning. When we have expertise in one topic, it’s difficult to walk away from our beliefs, even if they are foolish.
• When we define ourselves, it’s crucial to think about what we are tying up our identity to. Materials and monetary stuff are not always a good idea. When a person explains themselves with things they own, they will have difficulties changing their identities. On top of that, when people define themselves with opinions rather than values, they also lose flexibility. As they will tie their identity to a certain idea (such as supporting one party’s ideas in politics), they will defend these ideas more and more and become inflexible. Wherever we put our identity defines our adaptability to changes around us.
• We often don’t change our beliefs or ideas quickly. We usually defend them, although we form them very quickly. When we form opinions, we don’t even think about why we might be wrong. Even thinking once about a possible reason we might be wrong will improve our ideas, show us our weaknesses, and break our overconfidence.
• Thinking in the long term has a prolonged impact. When we focus on being right at the moment and sticking to our thoughts all the time, we increase the risk of being wrong in the long run. When we’re flexible with our opinions, we feel comfortable changing them to being right in the long term.
• Admitting we were wrong is considered a weakness by many people. However, that’s what makes us strong. When we admit we were wrong, we eliminate other people mocking or publicly shaming us. We become untouchable. Admitting our mistakes makes us powerful.
• When something is wrong, there is no need to blame whose fault it is or whose responsibility that mistake is. What matters is it’s our responsibility to fix that. When that mistake is in our mind, there is no other person than us to correct or change that mistaken opinion.

The Good Fight Club: The Psychology of Constructive Criticism

• Relationship conflicts are worse than task conflicts.  When people have relationship conflicts, they focus on topics unrelated to work. Their criticism of each other is based on how they behave toward each other. In task conflicts, people focus on the work, and their goal is to find out the best way to do the work. Task conflicts are necessary. Without conflicts, there is no harmony; there is only apathy.
• When in task conflicts, we learn from the other side. We learn from people who challenge our thought processes. When we avoid arguments, it doesn’t mean that we have good manners; it means we ignore the other side’s views and don’t value their perspectives.
• People like others who agree with their perspective more. However, when we say “agree to disagree,” we actually avoid these thoughts and put up walls around our ideas. If someone is challenging our thoughts, it means they value our opinion. We need to create cooperative groups that can disagree with each other while showing respect for each other.
• When people argue about  why  they should do something in one way or another, they cannot bring out the best solutions, and the discussions end up in relationship conflicts. They should have  one common why  and  argue over how  to do it. When discussions happen over how to part, the conflicts tend to stay as task conflicts and be productive. That’s why it’s crucial to have leaders who clarify the why so that people can focus on the how part.

Dances with Foes: How to Win Debates and Influence People

• Debates are not wars that we have to fight constantly; they are more like a dance in that we have to move back and forth and create harmony. We have to listen carefully and find common arguments and agree with some of the other side’s arguments. We need to step back and acknowledge their valid points instead of constantly supporting our argument with more reasons. We shouldn’t go into either defense or offense mode; we have to see the debate as dance and use stronger and fewer reasons.

“We don’t have to convince them that we’re right. We just need them to open their minds to the possibility that they might be wrong. Their natural curiosity will do the rest.”

• To change other people’s minds, we have to present humility, acknowledge their valid points (so we are reasonable), and ask questions to open their minds. The best negotiators ask many questions—more than average negotiators.
• In any heated argument, we can stop and ask,  “What evidence would change your mind?”
• People are interested in hiring people who acknowledge their weaknesses rather than bragging about their strengths.
• When we ask questions, we invite people to join our dance. When we assume things and think on their behalf, we never get them on the dance.

Bad Blood on the Diamond: Diminishing Prejudice by Destabilizing Stereotypes

• Convincing others to destroy their stereotypes demands  counterfactual thinking . Like asking questions in debates, we should ask questions and put the other side in situations where they understand how they formed these stereotypes. We should ask questions that will let them put themselves in someone else’s shoes. When people realize how easy it is to develop stereotypes, they change their perspectives. We need to ask questions that nudge them to explore the origins of their thoughts and beliefs, and we need to provoke them to reconsider their stance.

“Many of our beliefs are cultural truisms: widely shared, but rarely questioned.”

• When people interact with others with whom they formed beliefs against them, they often destroy their beliefs.
• In general, the people who hold power should question their beliefs more because they will likely form stereotypes and prejudices that will not be questioned.

Vaccine Whisperers and Mild-Mannered Interrogators: How the Right Kind of Listening Motivates People to Change

Motivational interviewing consists of

• Asking open-ended questions
• Engaging in reflective listening
• Affirming the person’s desire and ability to change
• Summarizing

Listening well is not only listening. It’s asking questions, being curious, and responding to other people. If someone just seems like they listen to you, you feel that they are not interested in what you’re saying. Listening well requires listening with interest.

The Righting Reflex : the desire to fix problems and offer answers. An excellent motivational interviewer resists this reflex.

Empathetic and uncritical listeners make people less anxious and defensive. People feel less stress and encourage themselves to explore their thoughts more deeply, recognize more nuances, and openly share them.

“Communicators try to make themselves look smart; great listeners try to make their audience feel smart.”

• Listening is giving the best gift: our attention

Charged Conversations: Depolarizing Our Divided Discussions

• To overcome binary bias, exposing ourselves to various perspectives is necessary.
• Doubtful experts are more persuasive. When people hear unknowns and uncertainties from the experts they trust, they pay more attention to the argument.
• Changing the focus from why to how reduces polarization and enables people to have more constructive conversations.
• Seeing and appreciating complexities remind us that there is no best and most effective behavior, and all of them have consequences.
• Binary bias is not only in our behavior but also in our emotions. When we face an adversary, it becomes easy to be stuck in one feeling, and  it’s difficult to rethink our position  later on.

Rewriting the Textbook: Teaching Students to Question Knowledge

• Interrogate the information instead of just consuming it.
• Reject popularity as its reliability.
• Recognize that the sender of the information may be different than its source.
• People learn more when they look at their solutions and try different approaches. Rethinking helps to master their craft.

That’s not the Way we’ve Always Done It: Building Cultures of Learning at Work

• Psychological safety and accountability play a critical role together in learning teams.
• Psychological safety is when people can express their concerns and suggestions while knowing they will be well received. These cultures foster trust, respect, and openness.
• In performance cultures, where we praise performance more, people rely on experts more and trust their word instead of thinking—and rethinking—their approach.
• To create psychological safety, leaders need to state their weaknesses out loud and make a public commitment to be open to feedback.
• Psychological safety requires humility: “confident humility to state that we’re working in progress.”
• When we explain some process behind a decision to someone else, we tend to see vulnerabilities more clearly, and we think more critically.
• When best practices become the standard, they tend to get worst practices because people blindly follow them and stop improving them.

Escaping Tunnel Vision: Reconsidering Our Best-Laid Career and Life Plans

• Asking kids about what they want to be when they grow up nudges them to place their identity in their work. They should actually think of the work as something they do rather than something they are. When they see it as something they do, they become more open to exploring their options and various responsibilities in their adult life.
• Find out people who inspire you. Observe what they do day-to-day.
• Form a hypothesis about how their style/processes might align with your interests, skills, ways, and values.
• Test out by running experiments. Do job interviewing, shadowing, and internships; the goal is to get a taste of work.
• For relationships: once in a while when facing difficulty.

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THINK AGAIN

Contrarian reflections on life, culture, politics, religion, law, and education.

by Stanley Fish ‧ RELEASE DATE: Nov. 1, 2015

Lucid, sinewy sentences lash, tickle, and caress.

A veteran essayist for the New York Times collects some gems from his pile of precious—though not always popular—stones.

Fish (Law/Florida International Univ.; Versions of Academic Freedom: From Professionalism to Revolution , 2014, etc.) has arranged his pieces thematically (see subtitle); within each category, he proceeds mostly chronologically. He claims in several places that he’s more interested in presenting than in advocating issues, but this is a tad disingenuous: his attitudes generally hum like electricity, even if they are sometimes strung behind the drywall. Fish’s more intimate, biographical essays compose the first section, but he’s hardly hiding elsewhere. He frequently talks about his readers (and their responses, sometimes hostile), about his myriad teaching experiences, and about popular culture. There are surprises throughout. He says he really loved the recent film Les Misérables , and he calls True Grit (the Coen brothers’ version) “a truly religious movie.” Fish’s focused sections serve both to attract and warn readers. He includes, for instance, some dense essays about legal issues—especially involving the First Amendment, on which he is an authority)—and will either delight or alarm readers with his occasional agreements with Supreme Court Justice Antonin Scalia. The author also links stand-your-ground laws to the ethos of old Western films, including Shane . Fish lets loose on those he calls the New Atheists: Sam Harris, Richard Dawkins, and the late Christopher Hitchens. Basically, he calls them superficial, if not stupid. He also argues for defining academic freedom more sharply, urging teachers to discuss any issues they want—but not to proselytize. Fish fiercely advocates for the liberal arts and disdains so-called independent voters. Like other fine essayists, he clearly identifies issues, is both analytical and tendentious (he would not confess to the latter), and will annoy readers on both sides of our current political divide.

Pub Date: Nov. 1, 2015

ISBN: 978-0-691-16771-8

Page Count: 448

Publisher: Princeton Univ.

Review Posted Online: Aug. 16, 2015

Kirkus Reviews Issue: Sept. 1, 2015

EDUCATION | CURRENT EVENTS & SOCIAL ISSUES | PHILOSOPHY & RELIGION | GENERAL CURRENT EVENTS & SOCIAL ISSUES

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by Stanley Fish

GOOD ECONOMICS FOR HARD TIMES

by Abhijit V. Banerjee & Esther Duflo ‧ RELEASE DATE: Nov. 12, 2019

Occasionally wonky but overall a good case for how the dismal science can make the world less—well, dismal.

“Quality of life means more than just consumption”: Two MIT economists urge that a smarter, more politically aware economics be brought to bear on social issues.

It’s no secret, write Banerjee and Duflo (co-authors: Poor Economics: A Radical Rethinking of the Way To Fight Global Poverty , 2011), that “we seem to have fallen on hard times.” Immigration, trade, inequality, and taxation problems present themselves daily, and they seem to be intractable. Economics can be put to use in figuring out these big-issue questions. Data can be adduced, for example, to answer the question of whether immigration tends to suppress wages. The answer: “There is no evidence low-skilled migration to rich countries drives wage and employment down for the natives.” In fact, it opens up opportunities for those natives by freeing them to look for better work. The problem becomes thornier when it comes to the matter of free trade; as the authors observe, “left-behind people live in left-behind places,” which explains why regional poverty descended on Appalachia when so many manufacturing jobs left for China in the age of globalism, leaving behind not just left-behind people but also people ripe for exploitation by nationalist politicians. The authors add, interestingly, that the same thing occurred in parts of Germany, Spain, and Norway that fell victim to the “China shock.” In what they call a “slightly technical aside,” they build a case for addressing trade issues not with trade wars but with consumption taxes: “It makes no sense to ask agricultural workers to lose their jobs just so steelworkers can keep theirs, which is what tariffs accomplish.” Policymakers might want to consider such counsel, especially when it is coupled with the observation that free trade benefits workers in poor countries but punishes workers in rich ones.

Pub Date: Nov. 12, 2019

ISBN: 978-1-61039-950-0

Page Count: 432

Publisher: PublicAffairs

Review Posted Online: Aug. 28, 2019

Kirkus Reviews Issue: Sept. 15, 2019

GENERAL CURRENT EVENTS & SOCIAL ISSUES | GENERAL BUSINESS | CURRENT EVENTS & SOCIAL ISSUES | BUSINESS | PUBLIC POLICY | ISSUES & CONTROVERSIES | ECONOMICS

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WHEN BREATH BECOMES AIR

by Paul Kalanithi ‧ RELEASE DATE: Jan. 19, 2016

A moving meditation on mortality by a gifted writer whose dual perspectives of physician and patient provide a singular...

A neurosurgeon with a passion for literature tragically finds his perfect subject after his diagnosis of terminal lung cancer.

Writing isn’t brain surgery, but it’s rare when someone adept at the latter is also so accomplished at the former. Searching for meaning and purpose in his life, Kalanithi pursued a doctorate in literature and had felt certain that he wouldn’t enter the field of medicine, in which his father and other members of his family excelled. “But I couldn’t let go of the question,” he writes, after realizing that his goals “didn’t quite fit in an English department.” “Where did biology, morality, literature and philosophy intersect?” So he decided to set aside his doctoral dissertation and belatedly prepare for medical school, which “would allow me a chance to find answers that are not in books, to find a different sort of sublime, to forge relationships with the suffering, and to keep following the question of what makes human life meaningful, even in the face of death and decay.” The author’s empathy undoubtedly made him an exceptional doctor, and the precision of his prose—as well as the moral purpose underscoring it—suggests that he could have written a good book on any subject he chose. Part of what makes this book so essential is the fact that it was written under a death sentence following the diagnosis that upended his life, just as he was preparing to end his residency and attract offers at the top of his profession. Kalanithi learned he might have 10 years to live or perhaps five. Should he return to neurosurgery (he could and did), or should he write (he also did)? Should he and his wife have a baby? They did, eight months before he died, which was less than two years after the original diagnosis. “The fact of death is unsettling,” he understates. “Yet there is no other way to live.”

Pub Date: Jan. 19, 2016

ISBN: 978-0-8129-8840-6

Page Count: 248

Publisher: Random House

Review Posted Online: Sept. 29, 2015

Kirkus Reviews Issue: Oct. 15, 2015

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