qualitative research design focus groups

Chapter 12. Focus Groups

Introduction.

Focus groups are a particular and special form of interviewing in which the interview asks focused questions of a group of persons, optimally between five and eight. This group can be close friends, family members, or complete strangers. They can have a lot in common or nothing in common. Unlike one-on-one interviews, which can probe deeply, focus group questions are narrowly tailored (“focused”) to a particular topic and issue and, with notable exceptions, operate at the shallow end of inquiry. For example, market researchers use focus groups to find out why groups of people choose one brand of product over another. Because focus groups are often used for commercial purposes, they sometimes have a bit of a stigma among researchers. This is unfortunate, as the focus group is a helpful addition to the qualitative researcher’s toolkit. Focus groups explicitly use group interaction to assist in the data collection. They are particularly useful as supplements to one-on-one interviews or in data triangulation. They are sometimes used to initiate areas of inquiry for later data collection methods. This chapter describes the main forms of focus groups, lays out some key differences among those forms, and provides guidance on how to manage focus group interviews.

qualitative research design focus groups

Focus Groups: What Are They and When to Use Them

As interviews, focus groups can be helpfully distinguished from one-on-one interviews. The purpose of conducting a focus group is not to expand the number of people one interviews: the focus group is a different entity entirely. The focus is on the group and its interactions and evaluations rather than on the individuals in that group. If you want to know how individuals understand their lives and their individual experiences, it is best to ask them individually. If you want to find out how a group forms a collective opinion about something (whether a product or an event or an experience), then conducting a focus group is preferable. The power of focus groups resides in their being both focused and oriented to the group . They are best used when you are interested in the shared meanings of a group or how people discuss a topic publicly or when you want to observe the social formation of evaluations. The interaction of the group members is an asset in this method of data collection. If your questions would not benefit from group interaction, this is a good indicator that you should probably use individual interviews (chapter 11). Avoid using focus groups when you are interested in personal information or strive to uncover deeply buried beliefs or personal narratives. In general, you want to avoid using focus groups when the subject matter is polarizing, as people are less likely to be honest in a group setting. There are a few exceptions, such as when you are conducting focus groups with people who are not strangers and/or you are attempting to probe deeply into group beliefs and evaluations. But caution is warranted in these cases. [1]

As with interviewing in general, there are many forms of focus groups. Focus groups are widely used by nonresearchers, so it is important to distinguish these uses from the research focus group. Businesses routinely employ marketing focus groups to test out products or campaigns. Jury consultants employ “mock” jury focus groups, testing out legal case strategies in advance of actual trials. Organizations of various kinds use focus group interviews for program evaluation (e.g., to gauge the effectiveness of a diversity training workshop). The research focus group has many similarities with all these uses but is specifically tailored to a research (rather than applied) interest. The line between application and research use can be blurry, however. To take the case of evaluating the effectiveness of a diversity training workshop, the same interviewer may be conducting focus group interviews both to provide specific actionable feedback for the workshop leaders (this is the application aspect) and to learn more about how people respond to diversity training (an interesting research question with theoretically generalizable results).

When forming a focus group, there are two different strategies for inclusion. Diversity focus groups include people with diverse perspectives and experiences. This helps the researcher identify commonalities across this diversity and/or note interactions across differences. What kind of diversity to capture depends on the research question, but care should be taken to ensure that those participating are not set up for attack from other participants. This is why many warn against diversity focus groups, especially around politically sensitive topics. The other strategy is to build a convergence focus group , which includes people with similar perspectives and experiences. These are particularly helpful for identifying shared patterns and group consensus. The important thing is to closely consider who will be invited to participate and what the composition of the group will be in advance. Some review of sampling techniques (see chapter 5) may be helpful here.

Moderating a focus group can be a challenge (more on this below). For this reason, confining your group to no more than eight participants is recommended. You probably want at least four persons to capture group interaction. Fewer than four participants can also make it more difficult for participants to remain (relatively) anonymous—there is less of a group in which to hide. There are exceptions to these recommendations. You might want to conduct a focus group with a naturally occurring group, as in the case of a family of three, a social club of ten, or a program of fifteen. When the persons know one another, the problems of too few for anonymity don’t apply, and although ten to fifteen can be unwieldy to manage, there are strategies to make this possible. If you really are interested in this group’s dynamic (not just a set of random strangers’ dynamic), then you will want to include all its members or as many as are willing and able to participate.

There are many benefits to conducting focus groups, the first of which is their interactivity. Participants can make comparisons, can elaborate on what has been voiced by another, and can even check one another, leading to real-time reevaluations. This last benefit is one reason they are sometimes employed specifically for consciousness raising or building group cohesion. This form of data collection has an activist application when done carefully and appropriately. It can be fun, especially for the participants. Additionally, what does not come up in a focus group, especially when expected by the researcher, can be very illuminating.

Many of these benefits do incur costs, however. The multiplicity of voices in a good focus group interview can be overwhelming both to moderate and later to transcribe. Because of the focused nature, deep probing is not possible (or desirable). You might only get superficial thinking or what people are willing to put out there publicly. If that is what you are interested in, good. If you want deeper insight, you probably will not get that here. Relatedly, extreme views are often suppressed, and marginal viewpoints are unspoken or, if spoken, derided. You will get the majority group consensus and very little of minority viewpoints. Because people will be engaged with one another, there is the possibility of cut-off sentences, making it even more likely to hear broad brush themes and not detailed specifics. There really is very little opportunity for specific follow-up questions to individuals. Reading over a transcript, you may be frustrated by avenues of inquiry that were foreclosed early.

Some people expect that conducting focus groups is an efficient form of data collection. After all, you get to hear from eight people instead of just one in the same amount of time! But this is a serious misunderstanding. What you hear in a focus group is one single group interview or discussion. It is not the same thing at all as conducting eight single one-hour interviews. Each focus group counts as “one.” Most likely, you will need to conduct several focus groups, and you can design these as comparisons to one another. For example, the American Sociological Association (ASA) Task Force on First-Generation and Working-Class Persons in Sociology began its study of the impact of class in sociology by conducting five separate focus groups with different groups of sociologists: graduate students, faculty (in general), community college faculty, faculty of color, and a racially diverse group of students and faculty. Even though the total number of participants was close to forty, the “number” of cases was five. It is highly recommended that when employing focus groups, you plan on composing more than one and at least three. This allows you to take note of and potentially discount findings from a group with idiosyncratic dynamics, such as where a particularly dominant personality silences all other voices. In other words, putting all your eggs into a single focus group basket is not a good idea.

How to Conduct a Focus Group Interview/Discussion

Advance preparations.

Once you have selected your focus groups and set a date and time, there are a few things you will want to plan out before meeting.

As with interviews, you begin by creating an interview (or discussion) guide. Where a good one-on-one interview guide should include ten to twelve main topics with possible prompts and follow-ups (see the example provided in chapter 11), the focus group guide should be more narrowly tailored to a single focus or topic area. For example, a focus might be “How students coped with online learning during the pandemic,” and a series of possible questions would be drafted that would help prod participants to think about and discuss this topic. These questions or discussion prompts can be creative and may include stimulus materials (watching a video or hearing a story) or posing hypotheticals. For example, Cech ( 2021 ) has a great hypothetical, asking what a fictional character should do: keep his boring job in computers or follow his passion and open a restaurant. You can ask a focus group this question and see what results—how the group comes to define a “good job,” what questions they ask about the hypothetical (How boring is his job really? Does he hate getting up in the morning, or is it more of an everyday tedium? What kind of financial support will he have if he quits? Does he even know how to run a restaurant?), and how they reach a consensus or create clear patterns of disagreement are all interesting findings that can be generated through this technique.

As with the above example (“What should Joe do?”), it is best to keep the questions you ask simple and easily understood by everyone. Thinking about the sequence of the questions/prompts is important, just as it is in conducting any interviews.

Avoid embarrassing questions. Always leave an out for the “I have a friend who X” response rather than pushing people to divulge personal information. Asking “How do you think students coped?” is better than “How did you cope?” Chances are, some participants will begin talking about themselves without you directly asking them to do so, but allowing impersonal responses here is good. The group itself will determine how deep and how personal it wants to go. This is not the time or place to push anyone out of their comfort zone!

Of course, people have different levels of comfort talking publicly about certain topics. You will have provided detailed information to your focus group participants beforehand and secured consent. But even so, the conversation may take a turn that makes someone uncomfortable. Be on the lookout for this, and remind everyone of their ability to opt out—to stay silent or to leave if necessary. Rather than call attention to anyone in this way, you also want to let everyone know they are free to walk around—to get up and get coffee (more on this below) or use the restroom or just step out of the room to take a call. Of course, you don’t really want anyone to do any of these things, and chances are everyone will stay seated during the hour, but you should leave this “out” for those who need it.

Have copies of consent forms and any supplemental questionnaire (e.g., demographic information) you are using prepared in advance. Ask a friend or colleague to assist you on the day of the focus group. They can be responsible for making sure the recording equipment is functioning and may even take some notes on body language while you are moderating the discussion. Order food (coffee or snacks) for the group. This is important! Having refreshments will be appreciated by your participants and really damps down the anxiety level. Bring name tags and pens. Find a quiet welcoming space to convene. Often this is a classroom where you move chairs into a circle, but public libraries often have meeting rooms that are ideal places for community members to meet. Be sure that the space allows for food.

Researcher Note

When I was designing my research plan for studying activist groups, I consulted one of the best qualitative researchers I knew, my late friend Raphael Ezekiel, author of The Racist Mind . He looked at my plan to hand people demographic surveys at the end of the meetings I planned to observe and said, “This methodology is missing one crucial thing.” “What?” I asked breathlessly, anticipating some technical insider tip. “Chocolate!” he answered. “They’ll be tired, ready to leave when you ask them to fill something out. Offer an incentive, and they will stick around.” It worked! As the meetings began to wind down, I would whip some bags of chocolate candies out of my bag. Everyone would stare, and I’d say they were my thank-you gift to anyone who filled out my survey. Once I learned to include some sugar-free candies for diabetics, my typical response rate was 100 percent. (And it gave me an additional class-culture data point by noticing who chose which brand; sure enough, Lindt balls went faster at majority professional-middle-class groups, and Hershey’s minibars went faster at majority working-class groups.)

—Betsy Leondar-Wright, author of Missing Class , coauthor of The Color of Wealth , associate professor of sociology at Lasell University, and coordinator of staffing at the Mission Project for Class Action

During the Focus Group

As people arrive, greet them warmly, and make sure you get a signed consent form (if not in advance). If you are using name tags, ask them to fill one out and wear it. Let them get food and find a seat and do a little chatting, as they might wish. Once seated, many focus group moderators begin with a relevant icebreaker. This could be simple introductions that have some meaning or connection to the focus. In the case of the ASA task force focus groups discussed above, we asked people to introduce themselves and where they were working/studying (“Hi, I’m Allison, and I am a professor at Oregon State University”). You will also want to introduce yourself and the study in simple terms. They’ve already read the consent form, but you would be surprised at how many people ignore the details there or don’t remember them. Briefly talking about the study and then letting people ask any follow-up questions lays a good foundation for a successful discussion, as it reminds everyone what the point of the event is.

Focus groups should convene for between forty-five and ninety minutes. Of course, you must tell the participants the time you have chosen in advance, and you must promptly end at the time allotted. Do not make anyone nervous by extending the time. Let them know at the outset that you will adhere to this timeline. This should reduce the nervous checking of phones and watches and wall clocks as the end time draws near.

Set ground rules and expectations for the group discussion. My preference is to begin with a general question and let whoever wants to answer it do so, but other moderators expect each person to answer most questions. Explain how much cross-talk you will permit (or encourage). Again, my preference is to allow the group to pick up the ball and run with it, so I will sometimes keep my head purposefully down so that they engage with one another rather than me, but I have seen other moderators take a much more engaged position. Just be clear at the outset about what your expectations are. You may or may not want to explain how the group should deal with those who would dominate the conversation. Sometimes, simply stating at the outset that all voices should be heard is enough to create a more egalitarian discourse. Other times, you will have to actively step in to manage (moderate) the exchange to allow more voices to be heard. Finally, let people know they are free to get up to get more coffee or leave the room as they need (if you are OK with this). You may ask people to refrain from using their phones during the duration of the discussion. That is up to you too.

Either before or after the introductions (your call), begin recording the discussion with their collective permission and knowledge . If you have brought a friend or colleague to assist you (as you should), have them attend to the recording. Explain the role of your colleague to the group (e.g., they will monitor the recording and will take short notes throughout to help you when you read the transcript later; they will be a silent observer).

Once the focus group gets going, it may be difficult to keep up. You will need to make a lot of quick decisions during the discussion about whether to intervene or let it go unguided. Only you really care about the research question or topic, so only you will really know when the discussion is truly off topic. However you handle this, keep your “participation” to a minimum. According to Lune and Berg ( 2018:95 ), the moderator’s voice should show up in the transcript no more than 10 percent of the time. By the way, you should also ask your research assistant to take special note of the “intensity” of the conversation, as this may be lost in a transcript. If there are people looking overly excited or tapping their feet with impatience or nodding their heads in unison, you want some record of this for future analysis.

I’m not sure why this stuck with me, but I thought it would be interesting to share. When I was reviewing my plan for conducting focus groups with one of my committee members, he suggested that I give the participants their gift cards first. The incentive for participating in the study was a gift card of their choice, and typical processes dictate that participants must complete the study in order to receive their gift card. However, my committee member (who is Native himself) suggested I give it at the beginning. As a qualitative researcher, you build trust with the people you engage with. You are asking them to share their stories with you, their intimate moments, their vulnerabilities, their time. Not to mention that Native people are familiar with being academia’s subjects of interest with little to no benefit to be returned to them. To show my appreciation, one of the things I could do was to give their gifts at the beginning, regardless of whether or not they completed participating.

—Susanna Y. Park, PhD, mixed-methods researcher in public health and author of “How Native Women Seek Support as Survivors of Intimate Partner Violence: A Mixed-Methods Study”

After the Focus Group

Your “data” will be either fieldnotes taken during the focus group or, more desirably, transcripts of the recorded exchange. If you do not have permission to record the focus group discussion, make sure you take very clear notes during the exchange and then spend a few hours afterward filling them in as much as possible, creating a rich memo to yourself about what you saw and heard and experienced, including any notes about body language and interactions. Ideally, however, you will have recorded the discussion. It is still a good idea to spend some time immediately after the conclusion of the discussion to write a memo to yourself with all the things that may not make it into the written record (e.g., body language and interactions). This is also a good time to journal about or create a memo with your initial researcher reactions to what you saw, noting anything of particular interest that you want to come back to later on (e.g., “It was interesting that no one thought Joe should quit his job, but in the other focus group, half of the group did. I wonder if this has something to do with the fact that all the participants were first-generation college students. I should pay attention to class background here.”).

Please thank each of your participants in a follow-up email or text. Let them know you appreciated their time and invite follow-up questions or comments.

One of the difficult things about focus group transcripts is keeping speakers distinct. Eventually, you are going to be using pseudonyms for any publication, but for now, you probably want to know who said what. You can assign speaker numbers (“Speaker 1,” “Speaker 2”) and connect those identifications with particular demographic information in a separate document. Remember to clearly separate actual identifications (as with consent forms) to prevent breaches of anonymity. If you cannot identify a speaker when transcribing, you can write, “Unidentified Speaker.” Once you have your transcript(s) and memos and fieldnotes, you can begin analyzing the data (chapters 18 and 19).

Advanced: Focus Groups on Sensitive Topics

Throughout this chapter, I have recommended against raising sensitive topics in focus group discussions. As an introvert myself, I find the idea of discussing personal topics in a group disturbing, and I tend to avoid conducting these kinds of focus groups. And yet I have actually participated in focus groups that do discuss personal information and consequently have been of great value to me as a participant (and researcher) because of this. There are even some researchers who believe this is the best use of focus groups ( de Oliveira 2011 ). For example, Jordan et al. ( 2007 ) argue that focus groups should be considered most useful for illuminating locally sanctioned ways of talking about sensitive issues. So although I do not recommend the beginning qualitative researcher dive into deep waters before they can swim, this section will provide some guidelines for conducting focus groups on sensitive topics. To my mind, these are a minimum set of guidelines to follow when dealing with sensitive topics.

First, be transparent about the place of sensitive topics in your focus group. If the whole point of your focus group is to discuss something sensitive, such as how women gain support after traumatic sexual assault events, make this abundantly clear in your consent form and recruiting materials. It is never appropriate to blindside participants with sensitive or threatening topics .

Second, create a confidentiality form (figure 12.2) for each participant to sign. These forms carry no legal weight, but they do create an expectation of confidentiality for group members.

In order to respect the privacy of all participants in [insert name of study here], all parties are asked to read and sign the statement below. If you have any reason not to sign, please discuss this with [insert your name], the researcher of this study, I, ________________________, agree to maintain the confidentiality of the information discussed by all participants and researchers during the focus group discussion.

Signature: _____________________________ Date: _____________________

Researcher’s Signature:___________________ Date:______________________

Figure 12.2 Confidentiality Agreement of Focus Group Participants

Third, provide abundant space for opting out of the discussion. Participants are, of course, always permitted to refrain from answering a question or to ask for the recording to be stopped. It is important that focus group members know they have these rights during the group discussion as well. And if you see a person who is looking uncomfortable or like they want to hide, you need to step in affirmatively and remind everyone of these rights.

Finally, if things go “off the rails,” permit yourself the ability to end the focus group. Debrief with each member as necessary.

9.4 Types of qualitative research designs

Learning objectives.

Define focus groups and outline how they differ from one-on-one interviews
Describe how to determine the best size for focus groups
Identify the important considerations in focus group composition
Discuss how to moderate focus groups
Identify the strengths and weaknesses of focus group methodology
Describe case study research, ethnography, and phenomenology.

There are various types of approaches to qualitative research. This chapter presents information about focus groups, which are often used in social work research. It also introduces case studies, ethnography, and phenomenology.

Focus Groups

Focus groups resemble qualitative interviews in that a researcher may prepare a guide in advance and interact with participants by asking them questions. But anyone who has conducted both one-on-one interviews and focus groups knows that each is unique. In an interview, usually one member (the research participant) is most active while the other (the researcher) plays the role of listener, conversation guider, and question-asker. Focus groups , on the other hand, are planned discussions designed to elicit group interaction and “obtain perceptions on a defined area of interest in a permissive, nonthreatening environment” (Krueger & Casey, 2000, p. 5). In focus groups, the researcher play a different role than in a one-on-one interview. The researcher’s aim is to get participants talking to each other, to observe interactions among participants, and moderate the discussion.

There are numerous examples of focus group research. In their 2008 study, for example, Amy Slater and Marika Tiggemann (2010) conducted six focus groups with 49 adolescent girls between the ages of 13 and 15 to learn more about girls’ attitudes towards’ participation in sports. In order to get focus group participants to speak with one another rather than with the group facilitator, the focus group interview guide contained just two questions: “Can you tell me some of the reasons that girls stop playing sports or other physical activities?” and “Why do you think girls don’t play as much sport/physical activity as boys?” In another focus group study, Virpi Ylanne and Angie Williams (2009) held nine focus group sessions with adults of different ages to gauge their perceptions of how older characters are represented in television commercials. Among other considerations, the researchers were interested in discovering how focus group participants position themselves and others in terms of age stereotypes and identities during the group discussion. In both examples, the researchers’ core interest in group interaction could not have been assessed had interviews been conducted on a one-on-one basis, making the focus group method an ideal choice.

Who should be in your focus group?

In some ways, focus groups require more planning than other qualitative methods of data collection, such as one-on-one interviews in which a researcher may be better able to the dialogue. Researchers must take care to form focus groups with members who will want to interact with one another and to control the timing of the event so that participants are not asked nor expected to stay for a longer time than they’ve agreed to participate. The researcher should also be prepared to inform focus group participants of their responsibility to maintain the confidentiality of what is said in the group. But while the researcher can and should encourage all focus group members to maintain confidentiality, she should also clarify to participants that the unique nature of the group setting prevents her from being able to promise that confidentiality will be maintained by other participants. Once focus group members leave the research setting, researchers cannot control what they say to other people.

Group size should be determined in part by the topic of the interview and your sense of the likelihood that participants will have much to say without much prompting. If the topic is one about which you think participants feel passionately and will have much to say, a group of 3–5 could make sense. Groups larger than that, especially for heated topics, can easily become unmanageable. Some researchers say that a group of about 6–10 participants is the ideal size for focus group research (Morgan, 1997); others recommend that groups should include 3–12 participants (Adler & Clark, 2008). The size of the focus group is ultimately the decision of the researcher. When forming groups and deciding how large or small to make them, take into consideration what you know about the topic and participants’ potential interest in, passion for, and feelings about the topic. Also consider your comfort level and experience in conducting focus groups. These factors will help you decide which size is right in your particular case.

It may seem counterintuitive, but in general, it is better to form focus groups consisting of participants who do not know one another than to create groups consisting of friends, relatives, or acquaintances (Agar & MacDonald, 1995). The reason is that group members who know each other may not share some taken-for-granted knowledge or assumptions. In research, it is precisely the taken-for-granted knowledge that is often of interest; thus, the focus group researcher should avoid setting up interactions where participants may be discouraged to question or raise issues that they take for granted. However, group members should not be so different from one another that participants will be unlikely to feel comfortable talking with one another.

Focus group researchers must carefully consider the composition of the groups they put together. In his text on conducting focus groups, Morgan (1997) suggests that “homogeneity in background and not homogeneity in attitudes” (p. 36) should be the goal, since participants must feel comfortable speaking up but must also have enough differences to facilitate a productive discussion. Whatever composition a researcher designs for her focus groups, the important point to keep in mind is that focus group dynamics are shaped by multiple social contexts (Hollander, 2004). Participants’ silences as well as their speech may be shaped by gender, race, class, sexuality, age, or other background characteristics or social dynamics—all of which might be suppressed or exacerbated depending on the composition of the group. Hollander (2004) suggests that researchers must pay careful attention to group composition, must be attentive to group dynamics during the focus group discussion, and should use multiple methods of data collection in order to “untangle participants’ responses and their relationship to the social contexts of the focus group” (p. 632).

The role of the moderator

In addition to the importance of group composition, focus groups also require skillful moderation. A moderator is the researcher tasked with facilitating the conversation in the focus group. Participants may ask each other follow-up questions, agree or disagree with one another, display body language that tells us something about their feelings about the conversation, or even come up with questions not previously conceived of by the researcher. It is just these sorts of interactions and displays that are of interest to the researcher. A researcher conducting focus groups collects data on more than people’s direct responses to her question, as in interviews.

The moderator’s job is not to ask questions to each person individually, but to stimulate conversation between participants. It is important to set ground rules for focus groups at the outset of the discussion. Remind participants you’ve invited them to participate because you want to hear from all of them. Therefore, the group should aim to let just one person speak at a time and avoid letting just a couple of participants dominate the conversation. One way to do this is to begin the discussion by asking participants to briefly introduce themselves or to provide a brief response to an opening question. This will help set the tone of having all group members participate. Also, ask participants to avoid having side conversations; thoughts or reactions to what is said in the group are important and should be shared with everyone.

As the focus group gets rolling, the moderator will play a less active role as participants talk to one another. There may be times when the conversation stagnates or when you, as moderator, wish to guide the conversation in another direction. In these instances, it is important to demonstrate that you’ve been paying attention to what participants have said. Being prepared to interject statements or questions such as “I’d really like to hear more about what Sunil and Joe think about what Dominick and Jae have been saying” or “Several of you have mentioned X. What do others think about this?” will be important for keeping the conversation going. It can also help redirect the conversation, shift the focus to participants who have been less active in the group, and serve as a cue to those who may be dominating the conversation that it is time to allow others to speak. Researchers may choose to use multiple moderators to make managing these various tasks easier.

Moderators are often too busy working with participants to take diligent notes during a focus group. It is helpful to have a note-taker who can record participants’ responses (Liamputtong, 2011). The note-taker creates, in essence, the first draft of interpretation for the data in the study. They note themes in responses, nonverbal cues, and other information to be included in the analysis later on. Focus groups are analyzed in a similar way as interviews; however, the interactive dimension between participants adds another element to the analytical process. Researchers must attend to the group dynamics of each focus group, as “verbal and nonverbal expressions, the tactical use of humour, interruptions in interaction, and disagreement between participants” are all data that are vital to include in analysis (Liamputtong, 2011, p. 175). Note-takers record these elements in field notes, which allows moderators to focus on the conversation.

Strengths and weaknesses of focus groups

Focus groups share many of the strengths and weaknesses of one-on-one qualitative interviews. Both methods can yield very detailed, in-depth information; are excellent for studying social processes; and provide researchers with an opportunity not only to hear what participants say but also to observe what they do in terms of their body language. Focus groups offer the added benefit of giving researchers a chance to collect data on human interaction by observing how group participants respond and react to one another. Like one-on-one qualitative interviews, focus groups can also be quite expensive and time-consuming. However, there may be some savings with focus groups as it takes fewer group events than one-on-one interviews to gather data from the same number of people. Another potential drawback of focus groups, which is not a concern for one-on-one interviews, is that one or two participants might dominate the group, silencing other participants. Careful planning and skillful moderation on the part of the researcher are crucial for avoiding, or at least dealing with, such possibilities. The various strengths and weaknesses of focus group research are summarized in Table 91.

Grounded Theory

Grounded theory has been widely used since its development in the late 1960s (Glaser & Strauss, 1967). Largely derived from schools of sociology, grounded theory involves emersion of the researcher in the field and in the data. Researchers follow a systematic set of procedures and a simultaneous approach to data collection and analysis. Grounded theory is most often used to generate rich explanations of complex actions, processes, and transitions. The primary mode of data collection is one-on-one participant interviews. Sample sizes tend to range from 20 to 30 individuals, sampled purposively (Padgett, 2016). However, sample sizes can be larger or smaller, depending on data saturation. Data saturation is the point in the qualitative research data collection process when no new information is being discovered. Researchers use a constant comparative approach in which previously collected data are analyzed during the same time frame as new data are being collected. This allows the researchers to determine when new information is no longer being gleaned from data collection and analysis — that data saturation has been reached — in order to conclude the data collection phase.

Rather than apply or test existing grand theories, or “Big T” theories, grounded theory focuses on “small t” theories (Padgett, 2016). Grand theories, or “Big T” theories, are systems of principles, ideas, and concepts used to predict phenomena. These theories are backed up by facts and tested hypotheses. “Small t” theories are speculative and contingent upon specific contexts. In grounded theory, these “small t” theories are grounded in events and experiences and emerge from the analysis of the data collected.

One notable application of grounded theory produced a “small t” theory of acceptance following cancer diagnoses (Jakobsson, Horvath, & Ahlberg, 2005). Using grounded theory, the researchers interviewed nine patients in western Sweden. Data collection and analysis stopped when saturation was reached. The researchers found that action and knowledge, given with respect and continuity led to confidence which led to acceptance. This “small t” theory continues to be applied and further explored in other contexts.

Case study research

Case study research is an intensive longitudinal study of a phenomenon at one or more research sites for the purpose of deriving detailed, contextualized inferences and understanding the dynamic process underlying a phenomenon of interest. Case research is a unique research design in that it can be used in an interpretive manner to build theories or in a positivist manner to test theories. The previous chapter on case research discusses both techniques in depth and provides illustrative exemplars. Furthermore, the case researcher is a neutral observer (direct observation) in the social setting rather than an active participant (participant observation). As with any other interpretive approach, drawing meaningful inferences from case research depends heavily on the observational skills and integrative abilities of the researcher.

Ethnography

The ethnographic research method, derived largely from the field of anthropology, emphasizes studying a phenomenon within the context of its culture. The researcher must be deeply immersed in the social culture over an extended period of time (usually 8 months to 2 years) and should engage, observe, and record the daily life of the studied culture and its social participants within their natural setting. The primary mode of data collection is participant observation, and data analysis involves a “sense-making” approach. In addition, the researcher must take extensive field notes, and narrate her experience in descriptive detail so that readers may experience the same culture as the researcher. In this method, the researcher has two roles: rely on her unique knowledge and engagement to generate insights (theory), and convince the scientific community of the trans-situational nature of the studied phenomenon.

The classic example of ethnographic research is Jane Goodall’s study of primate behaviors, where she lived with chimpanzees in their natural habitat at Gombe National Park in Tanzania, observed their behaviors, interacted with them, and shared their lives. During that process, she learnt and chronicled how chimpanzees seek food and shelter, how they socialize with each other, their communication patterns, their mating behaviors, and so forth. A more contemporary example of ethnographic research is Myra Bluebond-Langer’s (1996)14 study of decision making in families with children suffering from life-threatening illnesses, and the physical, psychological, environmental, ethical, legal, and cultural issues that influence such decision-making. The researcher followed the experiences of approximately 80 children with incurable illnesses and their families for a period of over two years. Data collection involved participant observation and formal/informal conversations with children, their parents and relatives, and health care providers to document their lived experience.

Phenomenology

Phenomenology is a research method that emphasizes the study of conscious experiences as a way of understanding the reality around us. Phenomenology is concerned with the systematic reflection and analysis of phenomena associated with conscious experiences, such as human judgment, perceptions, and actions, with the goal of (1) appreciating and describing social reality from the diverse subjective perspectives of the participants involved, and (2) understanding the symbolic meanings (“deep structure”) underlying these subjective experiences. Phenomenological inquiry requires that researchers eliminate any prior assumptions and personal biases, empathize with the participant’s situation, and tune into existential dimensions of that situation, so that they can fully understand the deep structures that drives the conscious thinking, feeling, and behavior of the studied participants.

Some researchers view phenomenology as a philosophy rather than as a research method. In response to this criticism, Giorgi and Giorgi (2003) developed an existential phenomenological research method to guide studies in this area. This method can be grouped into data collection and data analysis phases. In the data collection phase, participants embedded in a social phenomenon are interviewed to capture their subjective experiences and perspectives regarding the phenomenon under investigation. Examples of questions that may be asked include “can you describe a typical day” or “can you describe that particular incident in more detail?” These interviews are recorded and transcribed for further analysis. During data analysis, the researcher reads the transcripts to: (1) get a sense of the whole, and (2) establish “units of significance” that can faithfully represent participants’ subjective experiences. Examples of such units of significance are concepts such as “felt space” and “felt time,” which are then used to document participants’ psychological experiences. For instance, did participants feel safe, free, trapped, or joyous when experiencing a phenomenon (“felt-space”)? Did they feel that their experience was pressured, slow, or discontinuous (“felt-time”)? Phenomenological analysis should take into account the participants’ temporal landscape (i.e., their sense of past, present, and future), and the researcher must transpose herself in an imaginary sense in the participant’s situation (i.e., temporarily live the participant’s life). The participants’ lived experience is described in form of a narrative or using emergent themes. The analysis then delves into these themes to identify multiple layers of meaning while retaining the fragility and ambiguity of subjects’ lived experiences.

Key Takeaways

In terms of focus group composition, homogeneity of background among participants is recommended while diverse attitudes within the group are ideal.
The goal of a focus group is to get participants to talk with one another rather than the researcher.
Like one-on-one qualitative interviews, focus groups can yield very detailed information, are excellent for studying social processes, and provide researchers with an opportunity to observe participants’ body language; they also allow researchers to observe social interaction.
Focus groups can be expensive and time-consuming, as are one-on-one interviews; there is also the possibility that a few participants will dominate the group and silence others in the group.
Other types of qualitative research include case studies, ethnography, and phenomenology.
Data saturation – the point in the qualitative research data collection process when no new information is being discovered
Focus groups- planned discussions designed to elicit group interaction and “obtain perceptions on a defined area of interest in a permissive, nonthreatening environment” (Krueger & Casey, 2000, p. 5)
Moderator- the researcher tasked with facilitating the conversation in the focus group

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Zooming into Focus Groups: Strategies for Qualitative Research in the Era of Social Distancing

Lekshmi santhosh, juan c rojas, patrick g lyons.

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Correspondence and requests for reprints should be addressed to Patrick G. Lyons, M.D., M.Sc., Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, John T. Milliken Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, 4523 Clayton Ave, CB 8052, St. Louis, MO 63110. E-mail: [email protected] .

These authors contributed equally to this work.

Corresponding author.

Received 2020 Sep 11; Accepted 2020 Dec 1; Collection date 2021 Jun.

This article is open access and distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial No Derivatives License 4.0 ( https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ ). For commercial usage and reprints, please contact Diane Gern ( [email protected] ).

Qualitative research methods are important and have become increasingly prominent in medical education and research. The reason is simple: many pressing questions in these fields require qualitative approaches to elicit nuanced insights and additional meaning beyond standard quantitative measurements in surveys or observatons. Among the most common qualitative data collection methods are structured or semistructured in-person interviews and focus groups, in which participants describe their experiences relevant to the research question at hand. In the era of physical and social distancing because of the novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic, little guidance exists for strategies for conducting focus groups or semistructured interviews. Here we describe our experience with, and recommendations for, conducting remote focus groups and/or interviews in the era of social distancing. Specifically, we discuss best practice recommendations for researchers using video teleconferencing programs to continue qualitative research during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Keywords: qualitative research, videoconferencing, social distancing

Qualitative research focuses on exploring individuals’ perspectives related to specific research questions, issues, or activities ( 1 ). Frequently, structured interviews or focus groups are tools employed for data collection for qualitative research. In-person interviews are ideal, although phone and digital alternatives may be considered ( 2 , 3 ). However, little guidance exists for strategies for conducting focus groups or semistructured interviews in the era of physical and social distancing with the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic. In this article, we describe some strategies for conducting focus groups or structured interviews with the use of video conferencing platforms ( Figure 1 ). Video conferencing may provide researchers and research participants with a convenient and safe alternative to in-person qualitative research, albeit with some important limitations and considerations.

Key strategies to ensure successful remote focus groups and interviews. IRB = institutional review board.

Throughout 2019, we collaborated on a series of stakeholder focus groups to explore clinician experiences with patient handoffs between the intensive care unit and the wards. These focus groups, conducted in-person at our respective academic medical centers, helped us delineate key strengths and “pain points” of our handoff processes and identify facilitators and barriers to the user-centered design and implementation of a new process ( 4 ). We had scheduled subsequent in-person focus groups for this iterative design and testing process to take place in Spring 2020. However, we were forced to recalibrate our plans based on the rapidly changing COVID-19 situation and the situations of our intended participants (internal medicine residents). This article provides some practical guidance and reflections based on our experiences conducting semistructured focus groups using a videoconference platform with internal medicine residents at three academic medical centers. We outline our recommendations by describing the process of these remote focus groups, from planning and recruitment to the execution and technical troubleshooting of the videoconference.

Setting the Stage

More than ever, healthcare professionals are overtaxed because of increased clinical responsibilities; new or altered clinical environments and workflows; and increased burdens of administrative, educational, and investigatory work conducted by phone, e-mail, and video conference ( 5 – 7 ). Because of the school and childcare facility closures, many healthcare professionals may be engaged in nonclinical work while simultaneously caring for their children or supervising remote learning ( 8 ). With this in mind, we recommend that researchers carefully consider the timing of planned focus groups or interviews to maximize participation and minimize the strain on potential participants. Whenever possible, researchers should seek input on optimal timing and duration from potential participants.

The flexibility of video conferencing may potentially allow researchers to recruit participants by eliminating transportation and transit time barriers and allows for increased flexibility to consider scheduling focus groups or interviews at nontraditional times to accommodate the participants’ schedules.

Overall, we recommend that focus groups are conducted over video rather than audio if unable to be done in-person. Audio-only experiences are inherently more challenging than remote video sessions; it is difficult to tell when participants are speaking but muted, to identify an individual speaker among many participants, and to interpret tone and body language. In addition, audio-only encounters often limit crosstalk, which can enhance the depth of responses. We acknowledge that video is less private than audio, but it may be more private than in-person (e.g., a participant may decline to enroll in an in-person interview or group around a sensitive topic if they do not wish to be seen physically entering or exiting a known research room). Consent must specify whether audio alone is being recorded, or whether video and audio are both recorded.

Most importantly, before recruitment and consent, researchers should identify which video teleconferencing platform (e.g., Zoom, Google Meet, or Microsoft Teams) is best suited for the project ( Table 1 ); because these platforms share many of the same capabilities (e.g., screencasting/sharing and audio recording), this decision may be based on institutional adoption or availability.

Overview of several common videoconferencing platforms

Definition of abbreviation : HIPAA = Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act.

Recruitment and Consent

Although some local institutional review board (IRB) procedures may have changed in response to COVID-19, qualitative research projects with human participants still require IRB review for determination of exempt status or formal approval. Researchers should obtain IRB approval to record the audio from the focus group or structured interview if a recording is desired.

Recruitment is likely to be predominantly virtual, in the form of e-mail “blasts” describing the study and providing the information needed for informed consent. After completing recruitment and selecting a video conferencing platform for the proposed research, we recommend providing attendees a password-protected electronic invitation to ensure the privacy of the session. In addition, it is helpful when this invitation includes an attached electronic calendar “event,” which can allow potential participants to quickly cross reference their electronic calendars, which are increasingly full of virtual meetings. Gray and colleagues found that participants wanted to synchronize these invitations with their electronic calendars and preferred the interview be limited to 1 hour at most, to avoid fatigue and schedule disruption ( 9 ). Zoom and other similar platforms offer a straightforward option for participants to add the session to their personal electronic calendars automatically. We recommend this method of invitation to increase convenience for participants who are increasingly accustomed to daily schedules of virtual meetings.

As with in-person focus groups, there is likely to be a “U-shaped” relationship between the number of participants and the volume and depth of insights gained within a session; too few participants may prevent dialogue and limit progress toward thematic saturation or uncovering new insights, whereas too many participants will preclude opportunities for deeper follow-up and will limit the amount of time that any single participant may contribute. Most commonly available videoconference platforms permit audience sizes of 50 or more, which far exceeds the number of participants a typical focus group would contain.

Presession Technical Preparation

It is crucial that researchers familiarize themselves with the interface and options of their chosen videoconference platform, both to maximize the effectiveness of their session facilitation and to improve their ability to solve common technical difficulties that may arise. This preparation should take place on the computing device that the researcher intends to use for research sessions to ensure that video, audio volume, and internet speed are adequate to host a successful video conference meeting. We recommend recording a practice session to become familiar with recording logistics and file storage locations, and to ensure the device’s microphone records clearly enough for participants’ hearing and transcription. Beyond the opportunity to troubleshoot the virtual platform, this practice session may also serve the second purpose of familiarizing the facilitator with the discussion questions.

Of note, researchers should evaluate the adequacy of their devices’ storage capabilities, given the large file sizes required to record audio and video. Many universities provide network storage solutions to members of their academic community, which may help facilitate storing large files. Importantly, if the research participants are patients, any recorded data (i.e., audio, video, and transcripts) are considered protected health information. These data require additional privacy considerations, especially around storage and electronic transfer. Because commercial video chat platforms may host or store files on their servers, the research team should ensure, ahead of time, that any commercial video chat platform used for research meets both the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act and institutional standards for secure data storage.

After successful completion of the trial run as a host, we recommend contacting the study participants before the session to ensure that any technical questions or concerns are addressed.

Introducing the Session

Initializing a virtual meeting is, in many ways, similar to initializing an in-person meeting. Like physical meetings, attendees may “trickle in” late because of preceding scheduled events or technical difficulties. We recommend allowing 1–5 minutes at the session’s beginning to account for late arrivals and to address technical issues if any are apparent. Once individuals are in the meeting, the facilitator can “lock” the session so uninvited attendees do not “Zoom-bomb.” In addition, researchers can further protect their meeting by using a Waiting Room, if available. Videoconference waiting rooms are virtual staging areas, which prevents attendees from joining a meeting until permitted, either individually or in a group, to enter. The facilitator should introduce the focus group or structured interviews just as they would an in-person session, including assurances regarding confidentiality, an overview of the session’s objectives, and an explicit statement of the session’s ground rules. The facilitator should obtain permission to record the focus group or structured interview and provide attendees the opportunity to leave the meeting if they do not consent to the recording. Finally, we recommend that researchers consider using a visual cue on a shared slide to remind them to initiate recording before beginning the session’s questions. Ideally, having two individuals record the meeting helps ensure redundancy so that if one individual has recording issues, the copy is preserved.

Depending on the size of the focus group or structured interview, the facilitator may wish to describe, at the meeting’s beginning, how attendee opinions will be solicited. For example, focus group participants can “unmute” themselves to speak or use the “raise hand” function on the meeting service. We recommend discouraging the use of the “chat” function because chat box contents are not recorded unless explicitly read aloud. If attendees do type in the chat box during the session, we recommend that the facilitator read the chat box contents aloud to capture these insights in the recording and transcript. Last, consider asking attendees to share their video feeds so participants and leaders can view attendee facial expressions and identify visual cues when individuals are about to speak (or are speaking, but are inadvertently muted). However, we recognize that this recommendation could limit participation by attendees without video-capable devices and/or put undue stress or burden on attendees who may be simultaneously parenting or multitasking. Above all, researchers should encourage attendees to make choices that will maximize their comfort with the session, and thus, maximize their contributions to the discussion.

During the Session

In general, remote qualitative inquiry sessions should follow a structure similar to that of face-to-face sessions. The facilitator should use effective moderation techniques online just as they would in-person. We have found that having an additional research team member serve as a scribe and timekeeper is helpful, if available. This teammate could also serve as a backup host if the primary host has unresolvable technical issues. Facilitators guiding semistructured interviews should ask follow-up probing questions and avoid sharing their own opinion, asking closed or leading questions, and other missteps that contribute to bias.

Within these general guidelines, however, the research team should be cognizant of the ways in which remote interactions differ from a live discussion. For instance, participants may be either more (e.g., because of additional perceived anonymity) or less (e.g., because of multitasking) likely to interact on videoconference, which may require proactive facilitation (e.g., direction questions or probes to individual participants). Similarly, a proactive facilitator may wish to be particularly attentive for openings to ask probing or follow-up questions, as some data suggest that online qualitative inquiry provides less opportunity for probing and follow-up ( 10 ). Furthermore, microphone technology is likely to preclude the degree of crosstalk seen in many face-to-face focus groups, which could limit the depth and quality of dialogue elicited. This lack of crosstalk may inhibit the ability to develop social norms, which are often a key factor distinguishing focus groups from individual structured interviews. It is not known whether facilitator behaviors or factors like focus group size can modify these limitations, although certain characteristics of focus group questions (e.g., open-ended) appear to yield richer discussion and data ( 10 ). Finally, if an audio-only focus group is the only option, we suggest using a visual model (e.g., a map or list of participants) to remind the facilitator of focus group participants, so notes can be transcribed visually under each participant.

Researchers should consider the need to maintain the privacy and potential anonymity of all participants, as outlined in the project’s IRB protocol. This consideration should also include any potential protected health information if the participants are patients. If strict anonymity is required, avoid stating participants’ names during the recording. If deidentification during transcription or review is appropriate, using the names of participants may increase the connection between the facilitator and the respondent, allowing for greater psychological safety.

After the Session

Concluding a virtual interview or focus group is similar to concluding an in-person session of the same type. The researchers should thank participants for their time, particularly given the stressors of the pandemic. In addition, we recommend discussing criteria for possible follow-up discussions. After ending the recording, ensure the file is saved to a secure location. Use professional transcription software to transcribe the audio recording from the focus group. Analyze the data with the qualitative framework outlined in the study design stage.

Because qualitative analysis of remote interviews and focus groups is typically conducted on transcribed audio, the decision to use a video platform often has little impact on data analysis. However, in some situations, the recorded video may prove advantageous. For example, the inclusion of video might facilitate the differentiation of speakers or clarification of unclear words during transcription or transcript reviews. Similarly, video might provide context around pauses, hand gestures, or facial expressions. Whether remote sessions have the same Hawthorne-esque effect on participants (i.e., do they behave in a particular way because of their awareness of being observed) is unknown. For instance, it is possible that participants behave differently when observed on video as compared with an audio-only (e.g., telephone) experience, or as compared with an in person session. One implication of this possibility could involve the perceived acceptability of multitasking or split attention; not infrequently, video participants elect not to share their individual video feeds.

Common Pitfalls and Strategies for Success

Qualitative interviews and focus groups, regardless of the setting, are subject to certain pitfalls along with a project’s progression from research question to analysis and dissemination. For instance, suboptimal recruitment practices (e.g., lack of advertisement) may limit enrollment, whereas incomplete or rushed interview scripts may not elicit complete or nuanced insights from participants. For remote interviews or focus groups, distance and technology may present additional obstacles (or interact with known risks), which can threaten a project’s success ( Table 2 ). Overall, the virtual qualitative experience offers a tradeoff between participant availability and an increased number of potential distractions. Whether these potential threats to qualitative insight are worth access to participants who might be unable to attend face-to-face sessions is likely to vary across research questions and teams of investigators. In general, these pitfalls can be avoided or mitigated with careful preplanning, practice sessions, and deliberate attention to areas of risk.

Potential remote focus group pitfalls and related strategies for success

Definition of abbreviation s: IRB = institutional review board; HIPAA = Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act.

Conclusions

We hope that these practical tips can help with conducting rigorous qualitative inquiry through remote focus groups or structured interviews in the era of physical and social distancing.

Supplementary Material

Supported by an APCCMPD, CHEST, and ATS Education Research Award (L.S.).

Author Contributions : Conception and design: P.G.L. Drafting of the article: L.S., J.C.R., and P.G.L. Critical revision of the article for important intellectual content: L.S., J.C.R., and P.G.L. Final approval of the article: L.S., J.C.R., and P.G.L. Administrative, technical, or logistic support: P.G.L.

Author disclosures are available with the text of this article at www.atsjournals.org .

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Chapter 14: Focus groups

Tess Tsindos

Learning Outcomes

Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to:

Assess when to use focus groups in qualitative research.
Develop questions for a focus group guide.
Understand how to conduct a focus group.

What are focus groups?

Focus groups are convened to discuss an issue of mutual concern. The purpose of a focus group is to explore the experiences, understandings, opinions or motivations of research participants. 1 While individual interviews explore the experiences of (usually) one participant (see Chapter 13 ), focus groups are conducted with three or more people who share an experience or concern. The conversation between participants in a focus group is mediated and facilitated by the researcher. Focus groups can be used when little is known about the participants or a topic (an exploratory process), when testing new ideas (e.g. acceptability of a program or intervention) or when undertaking an evaluation of a service or product.

The focus of the discussion is on the interaction between participants in the group; some participants may have similar experiences or views, while others have different experiences. The group dynamic is important and therefore it is important that participants lead the discussion and are encouraged to talk through their similarities and differences, so that the researcher might gain a well-rounded perspective and account of the topic. A group might be homogeneous, get along well and share similar experiences. Or the group might be heterogeneous and have differing opinions and experiences. Participants might know each other because they have been recruited from the same program or community, or they could be total strangers. All these elements contribute to the focus of discussion, and to the group dynamic; that is, the interactivity of the focus group.

How many focus group members should there be?

Ideally, a focus group should include 6–10 participants 2 and the conversation should be moderated by the researcher, using a focus group discussion guide. However, the number of participants may vary according to the topic and the number of participants able to be recruited. The data collected from focus groups tends to differ from interview data because people respond and compare their own experiences with those of others in the group. Therefore, the number and composition of group members influence the data gathered.

Having too many people in a group means that discussion can become chaotic and it is unlikely that everyone in the group will have a say. Having too few people means that there may not be sufficient interaction to enable to capture a group perspective. Focus groups have been conducted with as few as two people: in a focus group conducted by one of the authors of this chapter, several participants had been invited, but only two attended. Since participants were difficult to recruit from the target population, it was not feasible to cancel the focus group. The topic was recovery after percutaneous coronary intervention (a cardiac procedure). The focus group discussion developed into an intimate conversation between two older men about their challenges in physical recovery and the psychological effects of not being able to fulfil a traditional male role. The small group size was serendipitous, in that the researcher may not have been able to collect such rich data had the group been larger. 3

The researcher (s)

It is common to have two researchers present in a focus group. One facilitates the group, while the other observes and records the session, and takes notes about who said what, body language and other observable information that contributes to the context of the data being collected. The observer should be as unobtrusive as possible and not participate in the group discussion. Similar to interviews, focus groups are audio-recorded so the conversation can be transcribed for analysis. The researcher is encouraged to build rapport with focus group participants, which is aided by having a friendly and approachable manner. The focus group method enables the facilitator to probe ideas as they arise and to check their understanding of participants’ responses. This active facilitation enhances the robustness of the data collected. The quality of the data collected will depend greatly on how effective the researcher is at facilitating the group, and thus good interpersonal skills are essential. Conducting effective focus group discussions comes with practice and experience.

How long should a focus group be?

There are no strict rules about how long a focus group should be. Different groups will likely run for different amounts of time because this depends on the research question/s and the types of group members. For example, a group of people who know each other and have a common experience may need no longer than 45 minutes, whereas a group of strangers with different experiences may need up to 2 hours. Additionally, the number of people in the focus group will affect the amount of time needed. A focus group discussion with 6 participants may likely be shorter than a focus group with 12 participants.

Designing the focus group guide

Before the commencement of a focus group, the researchers need to develop a focus group discussion guide, which is similar to an interview guide. Both aim to explore the experiences, understandings, opinions and motivations of participants. If the study’s research methods include interviews and focus groups, the questions will be very similar. T he difference is that the focus group discussion guide do es not typically ask questions to elicit individual storytelling, but rather to ask questions to invite discussion of shared experiences , in which participants confirm or contrast each others ’ views . If focus groups are the sole data collection method, the researcher may consult existing literature, speak to experts, including people with lived experience about the focus of the research, and draw on their knowledge so that the topics and questions can be mapped to the research question/s.

The focus group guide should be developed well in advance of commencing data collection. This provides time for the facilitator and the observer to explore together the language and clarity of questions, the order and flow of the guide, and whether the instructions for participants are clear and comprehensive. To facilitate free-flowing responses, it is important to use open-ended questions that encourage participants to be expansive in their responses. Examples of open-ended question formats include those that start with ‘who’, ‘how’ ‘tell me more about’ and ‘where’.

Pilot interview/s enable the researchers to test the interview guide. However, they are often not conducted because it can be difficult to recruit enough relevant participants. Instead, focus group questions might be reviewed by other members of the research team for clarity and comprehensiveness. The study design will determine the number of questions asked and the extent of the focus group guide. The target population may also determine the extent of the focus group guide; for example, clinicians who are time-poor may need shorter focus groups while patient populations may be interested in exploring their experiences in detail and at length.

Following is a template that can be adapted for the introduction of a focus group. Table 14.1 offers example questions for a focus group discussion guide.

Focus group introduction

‘Hi everyone. My name is [insert name] and I’m from [insert organisation]. I am conducting [describe study]. Thank you for agreeing to be part of this focus group today. You were invited to participate in this focus group because [include reason]. Today we would like to discuss [outline topics]. We anticipate that the session will go for approximately [insert expected time]. Before we get started, I’d like to explain how we would like to structure the discussion. 1. We would like to hear from everyone present. This may mean that I will call on you by name to respond to a question. I may also indicate to you when it’s time to wrap up your thoughts so we can move on to another person or topic. 2. Feel free to respond directly to each other. I’m here to facilitate the discussion, but you are encouraged to respond to the other participants in this group. 3. We are recording the session today. This will ensure that we capture everything discussed. Your names will not be used in the reporting of this data and we will be using pseudonyms or codes instead when writing up results. 4. Please be respectful of what other participants share. Due to the nature of focus groups, we cannot ensure confidentiality, but we do ask that you do not repeat what is discussed in this group to people who were not present. You should feel free to not answer a question if you don’t feel comfortable answering. Do you have any questions before we begin?”

Table 14.1. Focus group guide: Example questions for a descriptive study

An earlier variation of this table has appeared in the Supplementary material for the article Why do students plagiarise? Informing higher education teaching and learning policy and practice . 4

Setting up the f ocus group

In the past, most focus groups were conducted in person. Emerging technologies have enabled the conduct of focus groups online, using teleconferencing and videoconferencing platforms. While it is more challenging to conduct a focus group online – primarily because participants’ body language is often not seen – it can be a very useful method of collecting data. The benefits include low cost, greater access to participants in different locations and time efficiencies. 5 Participants who are less inclined to participate verbally are able to use ‘chat’ functions to contribute their comments. Whether the focus group is face-to-face or online, the facilitator will need to help participants feel as comfortable as possible and encourage discussion.

Focus group activities

Focus groups may incorporate activities in addition to, or to aid discussion; for example, sorting and ranking activities to prioritise topics for discussion in the focus group; or a River of Life 6 activity (see Chapter 18 ).

C onsiderations for the conduct of focus groups

C onfidentiality should be addressed explicitly; for example, using the Chatham House rule, which sets out expectations about repeating what is said in a meeting without revealing the identities of who said it or other participants. 7 It is advisable to provide each participant with an explanatory statement to read, which states that confidentiality is essential to the focus group discussions.

Expectations need to be communicated in advance. Many of the tips for interviews in Chapter 13 apply also to focus groups, but it is important to communicate the researchers’ and the group’s expectations upfront. Some, but not all, of the expectations of focus groups are included in Table 14.2. The facilitator should explain these expectations before the focus group starts. Table 14.3 provides examples of studies using focus groups for data collection.

Table 14.2. Dos and don’ts of conducting focus groups

Power imbalances. When setting up a focus group, the facilitator should pay strict attention to how homogenous the group needs to be concerning the topic, and how possible power imbalances might affect the data collection. For example, if the research question seeks to understand why drug administration errors occur in hospitals, it would not be a good idea to have doctors, nurses and pharmacists in the same group. Why? Because they might not feel comfortable expressing views in front of the very people they have seen make errors. Instead, you could run three separate groups: one with doctors, one with nurses and another with pharmacists. Conducting separate group discussions helps to avoid the chance that a powerful group might dominate the discussion and enables each group member to express their views openly.

Participant identity. The facilitator should invite participants to introduce themselves to other group members, to encourage familiarity; name tags can help participants remember each other’s names. The researchers will need to maintain a list of participants and any necessary demographic details.

Risk. The possibility of distress or harm occurring must always be considered in a focus group. Participants may become distressed because sensitive topics are being discussed, and there is always a risk that some participants might overshare their experiences. The facilitator will need to judge when to stop the discussion if it becomes clear that one or more participants are distressed. 8 Researchers should have a clear protocol developed that provides advice about how to handle distress.

After the f ocus g roup

Once the discussion is concluded, participants should be thanked for their time and contributions. Explain how participants might contact the researcher if they have any questions or would like to provide the facilitator with follow-up information. If the focus group has covered sensitive topics or any participants have become distressed during the discussion, make sure that you spend some time privately with the participant to provide appropriate referrals and follow-up (see Section 6 ). Referrals and follow-up are usually described in the protocol addressing distress.

Data analysis is discussed in Section 4 , but it is important to know what to do immediately after each focus group is completed. Download (or upload) the recording from the audio-recording device to ensure it is saved in a secure location that can only be accessed by people on the research team (see Chapter 34). The recording should be transcribed; that is, reproduced verbatim, for data coding and analysis. The transcription of data is an important step in the analysis process, and it is important to note that this is a highly time-consuming task. Transcribing a 60-minute focus group discussion can take up to 10 hours.

Table 14.3. Examples of focus groups

Focus groups and (individual interviews) are the most common data collection techniques in qualitative research. The success of a focus group depends on the group composition and the effectiveness of the facilitator. It is important to formulate open-ended focus group questions that are understandable and easy for participants to engage with. Setting up the focus group discussion guide, rules and other considerations will enhance the experience of the focus group for the participant and the researchers, as well as the quality of the data collected.

Gill P, Stewart K, Treasure E et al . Methods of data collection in qualitative research: interviews and focus groups. Br Dent J . 2008;204(6):291-295. doi:10.1038/bdj.2008.192
Gill, P, Baillie, J. Interviews and focus groups in qualitative research: an update for the digital age. Br Dent J . 2018;225:668-672. doi:10.1038/sj.bdj.2018.815
Soh S-E, Barker AL, Ayton DR et al. What matters most to patients following percutaneous coronary interventions? A new patient-reported outcome measure developed using Rasch analysis. PLoS ONE . 2019;14(9):e0222185. doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0222185
Ayton D, Hillman C, Hatzikiriakidis K, et al. Why do students plagiarise? Informing higher education teaching and learning policy and practice. Stud High Educ . Sep 2 2022;47(9):1921-1934. doi:10.1080/03075079.2021.1985103
Abrams K, Gaiser T. Online focus groups. In: Field N, Lee R, Blank G, eds. The Sage Handbook of Online Research Methods . Sage Publications, 2016;435–450.
Moussa Z. Rivers of life. Participatory Learning and Action. Community-based adaptation to climate change, 2009. The International Institute for Environment and Development. Accessed March 24, 2023. https://www.iied.org/g02828
The Chatham House rule. Chatham House, The Royal Institute of International Affairs, 2023. Accessed March 24, 2023. https://www.chathamhouse.org/about-us/chatham-house-rule#:~:text=The%20Rule%20reads%20as%20follows,other%20participant%2C%20may%20be%20revealed .
Sim J, Waterfield J. Focus group methodology: some ethical challenges. Qual Quant. 2019;53:3003-3022. doi/10.1007/s11135-019-00914-5
van der Spek N, Vos J, van Uden-Kraan CF et al. Meaning making in cancer survivors: a focus group study. P LoS ONE . 2013;8(9):e76089. doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0076089
Visser E, Den Oudsten BL, Traa MJ et al . Patients’ experiences and wellbeing after injury: a focus group study. PLoS ONE . 2021;1 6(1):e0245198. doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0245198
Moynihan R, Sims R, Hersch J et al . Communicating about overdiagnosis: learning from community focus groups on osteoporosis. PLoS ONE . 2017;12(2):e0170142. doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0170142
Sabet Sarvestani A, Bufumbo L, Geiger JD et al. . Traditional male circumcision in Uganda: a qualitative focus group discussion analysis. PLoS ONE . 2012;7(10):e45316. doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0045316

Qualitative Research – a practical guide for health and social care researchers and practitioners Copyright © 2023 by Darshini Ayton; Tess Tsindos; Danielle Berkovic is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Focus Groups as Qualitative Research

Edition: Second Edition
By: David L. Morgan
Publisher: SAGE Publications, Inc.
Series: Qualitative Research Methods
Publication year: 1997
Online pub date: January 01, 2011
Discipline: Anthropology
Methods: Focus groups , Moderators , Participant observation
DOI: https:// doi. org/10.4135/9781412984287
Keywords: discussion groups , group composition , group discussion , heart attack , moderator , social science Show all Show less
Print ISBN: 9780761903437
Online ISBN: 9781412984287
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The extensively revised edition of the best-selling Focus Groups as Qualitative Research continues to provide an excellent guide for researchers across the disciplines. Reflecting the many changes that have occurred in the study of focus groups in recent years, the book begins with an updated introduction offering a discussion of current social science approaches to focus groups. Expanded coverage on the comparison of focus groups to individual interviews follows, and there is more material on the strengths and weaknesses of focus groups. The section on self-contained focus groups has also been expanded. Subsequent chapters have been revised to include examples from social scientists who have established their own practices and methodological research on focus groups. In conclusion, the author offers future directions and references that take into account the explosive growth of focus groups as a research tool for all social scientists.

Front Matter

Series Editors' Introduction
Introduction
Focus Groups As A Qualitative Method
The Uses of Focus Groups
Planning and Research Design for Focus Groups
Conducting and Analyzing Focus Groups
Additional Possibilities
Conclusions

Back Matter

About the Author

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Qualitative study design: Focus groups

Qualitative study design
Phenomenology
Grounded theory
Ethnography
Narrative inquiry
Action research
Case Studies
Field research
Focus groups
Observation
Surveys & questionnaires
Study Designs Home

Focus Groups

Focus groups bring individuals from the study population together in a specific setting in order to discuss an issue as a group. The discussion generates research data.

Focus groups typically have these features:

Four to ten participants meeting for up to two hours
A facilitator or facilitators to guide discussion using open-ended questions
An emphasis on the group talking among itself rather than to the facilitator
Discussion is recorded and then transcribed for analysis by researchers

Researchers conduct several individual focus group meetings to produce a series. The number of focus groups in the series depends on the study’s aim, methods and resources.

Focus groups use a group setting to generate data different to that obtained in a one-to-one interview. The group context may allow for better examination of beliefs, attitudes, values, perspectives, knowledge and ideas.

Focus groups can be useful in action research methodology and other study designs which seek to empower research participants. Focus groups are also useful in multimethod studies utilising different forms of data collection.

Quick way to collect data from several people
Produces data unique to group setting (e.g. teasing, arguing and non-verbal behaviour) due to the interaction between participants. This is a unique feature of focus groups.
Unlike written questionnaires, focus groups don’t rely on participant literacy to generate data
Can encourage participation from marginalised groups
Can facilitate discussion of stigmatised or counter-cultural topics due to feeling of mutual support among focus group participants
Can generate more critical comments than individual interviews. This is valuable for research aimed at improving products or services.
Can be used to validate findings from quantitative research methods by providing a deeper understanding that statistics cannot.

Limitations

Individual perspectives that dissent from the focus group’s majority may remain hidden due to overriding behavioural or cultural norms, or a desire to be seen as conforming.
Confidentiality of individual responses is compromised due to the existence of the group
Only applicable when the population of interest has shared social and cultural experience or share common areas of concern.
Group discussion does not provide enough depth for researchers to understand experiences, especially in comparison to in-depth interviews.
Data is representative of the range of views in a population, not the prevalence of such views.
The facilitator has a strong effect on the focus groups behaviour and can therefore influence the extent to which issues or views are explored.
Data analysis is usually very time consuming due to the quantity produced.

Example questions

What are the experiences, needs and wishes of mothers who received midwifery care at tertiary hospitals in Victoria, Australia?
How useful is the patient perspective for the creation of an information information booklet for patients with liver cancer?
What factors influence nursing students' development of end-of-life communication skills?

Example studies

Harrison, M., Ryan, T., Gardiner, C., & Jones, A. (2017). Psychological and emotional needs, assessment, and support post-stroke: a multi-perspective qualitative study . Top Stroke Rehabil, 24 (2), 119-125. doi: 10.1080/10749357.2016.1196908

Shilubane, H. N., Ruiter, R. A., Bos, A. E., Reddy, P. S., & van den Borne, B. (2014). High school students' knowledge and experience with a peer who committed or attempted suicide: a focus group study . BMC Public Health, 14 , 1081. doi: 10.1186/1471-2458-14-1081

Wiles, J. L., Leibing, A., Guberman, N., Reeve, J., & Allen, R. E. (2012). The meaning of "aging in place" to older people . Gerontologist , 52(3), 357-366. doi: 10.1093/geront/gnr098

Kitzinger, J. (1995). Qualitative research: introducing focus groups . BMJ, 311 (7000), 299. doi: 10.1136/bmj.311.7000.299

Rice, P. L., & Ezzy, D. (1999). Qualitative research methods: a health focus . South Melbourne, Australia: Oxford University Press.

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Next: Observation >>
Last Updated: Jul 3, 2024 11:46 AM
URL: https://deakin.libguides.com/qualitative-study-designs

COMMENTS

What is a Focus Group | Step-by-Step Guide & Examples - Scribbr
Focus groups are a type of qualitative research. Observations of the group’s dynamic, their answers to focus group questions, and even their body language can guide future research on consumer decisions, products and services, or controversial topics.
Focus Groups - Steps, Examples and Guide - Research Method
Focus groups are a powerful tool for gathering qualitative insights that provide depth and context to research questions. By following the steps outlined here—defining objectives, recruiting participants, developing a guide, and conducting thorough analysis—researchers can effectively use focus groups to explore complex issues.
Chapter 12. Focus Groups – Introduction to Qualitative ...
Focus groups explicitly use group interaction to assist in the data collection. They are particularly useful as supplements to one-on-one interviews or in data triangulation. They are sometimes used to initiate areas of inquiry for later data collection methods.
Planning Qualitative Research: Design and Decision Making for ...
Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to provide a concise explanation of four common qualitative approaches, demonstrating how each approach is linked to specific types of data collection and analysis. The four qualitative approaches we include are case study, ethnography, narrative inquiry, and phenomenology.
9.4 Types of qualitative research designs – Foundations of ...
There are various types of approaches to qualitative research. This chapter presents information about focus groups, which are often used in social work research. It also introduces case studies, ethnography, and phenomenology.
Zooming into Focus Groups: Strategies for Qualitative ...
Among the most common qualitative data collection methods are structured or semistructured in-person interviews and focus groups, in which participants describe their experiences relevant to the research question at hand.
Chapter 14: Focus groups – Qualitative Research - CAUL
Assess when to use focus groups in qualitative research. Develop questions for a focus group guide. Understand how to conduct a focus group. What are focus groups? Focus groups are convened to discuss an issue of mutual concern.
UCSF Guides: Qualitative Research Guide: Focus Groups
A detailed description with instruction and tips for focus group research from the Center for Assessment, Planning & Accountability.
Sage Research Methods - Focus Groups as Qualitative Research
The extensively revised edition of the best-selling Focus Groups as Qualitative Research continues to provide an excellent guide for researchers across the disciplines.
LibGuides: Qualitative study design: Focus groups
Focus groups use a group setting to generate data different to that obtained in a one-to-one interview. The group context may allow for better examination of beliefs, attitudes, values, perspectives, knowledge and ideas. Focus groups can be useful in action research methodology and other study designs which seek to empower research participants.

Chapter 12. Focus Groups

Focus Groups: What Are They and When to Use Them

How to Conduct a Focus Group Interview/Discussion

During the Focus Group

After the Focus Group

Advanced: Focus Groups on Sensitive Topics

Further Readings

9.4 Types of qualitative research designs

Focus Groups

Who should be in your focus group?

The role of the moderator

Strengths and weaknesses of focus groups

Grounded Theory

Case study research

Ethnography

Phenomenology

Key Takeaways

Image attributions

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Zooming into Focus Groups: Strategies for Qualitative Research in the Era of Social Distancing

Setting the Stage

Recruitment and Consent

Presession Technical Preparation

Introducing the Session

During the Session

After the Session

Common Pitfalls and Strategies for Success

Conclusions

Supplementary Material

Associated Data

Supplementary Materials

Similar articles

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Chapter 14: Focus groups

Learning Outcomes

What are focus groups?

How many focus group members should there be?

The researcher (s)

How long should a focus group be?

Designing the focus group guide

Focus group introduction

Table 14.1. Focus group guide: Example questions for a descriptive study

Setting up the f ocus group

Focus group activities

C onsiderations for the conduct of focus groups

Table 14.2. Dos and don’ts of conducting focus groups

After the f ocus g roup

Table 14.3. Examples of focus groups

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Focus Groups as Qualitative Research

Front Matter

Back Matter

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Qualitative study design: Focus groups

Focus Groups

Limitations

Example questions

Example studies

COMMENTS